Chapter 2 :- New kings and kingdoms
1.Dynasty:-A family of rules who rules over a country for a long period of time.
2.Kingdoms:-Any country which is ruled by a monarch (king or queen) is considered to be a kingdom
3.Empire:-An empire can be said is a large kingdom. It is traditionally larger than a kingdom and many consists of many different regions and nations may be far away from head of kingdom i.e. it's capital.
The emergence of new dynasties:-
- By the seventh century there were big landlords or warrior chiefs in different regions of the subcontinent called Samantha's.
- They were expected to:-
- bring gifts for their kings ,
- be present at their courts
- provide military support.
- As Samantas gained power and wealth, they declared themselves to be maha-samanta, maha-mandaleshvara.
- Sometimes they asserted their independence from their overlords.
- For example:- Rashtrakuta(in the Deccan)were the sub-ordinate to Chalukyas of Karnataka initially.
- But in mid eighth century, its chief, Dantidurga overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha.
- When this ritual was performed with the help of Brahmanas, it was thought to lead to re-birth of sacrifices as a Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth.
- In other cases , men from enterprising families used their military skills to carve out kingdoms.
- For example:- the Kadamba Mayurasharman and Gujarara- Pratihara Harichandra. were Brahmanas who gave up their traditional professions and took up arms, successfully establishing kingdoms in Karnataka and Rajasthan respectively.
Administration in kingdoms:-
- Many kings adopted high -sounding titles such as maharaja-adhiraja, tribhuvana-chakravartin and so on
- Inspite of this, they share power with their Samantas as well as with association of peasants, traders and Brahmanas.
- In each of these states, resources were obtained from the producers and traders.
- These resources were used to finance the king's establishment, constuction of temples ,forts, in wars.
Prashastis and land grants:-
- Prashastis contain details that may not be literally true.
- It tells us how rulers wanted to depict themselves - as valiant, victorious warriors.
- These were composer by learned Brahmanas, who occasionally helped in the administration.
- Kings rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land.
- These were recorded on copper plated, which were given to those who received the land.
- Note:- Ruler of Kanauj won a victory over Chakrayudha.
- A poem containing the history of kings who ruled over Kashmir is composed by author named Kalyana.
Warfare for wealth:-
Tripartite struggle:-
- Kanauj , a city in the Ganga valley was an important city of the time.
- For centuries, rulers belonging to the Gujarat-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties fought for control over Kanauj . It is known as tripartite struggle.
Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan:-
- He ruled from 997to 1030.
- He extended control over parts of Central Asia, Iran and North-western part of subcontinent.
- He raised the subcontinent almost every year.
- His targets were wealthy temples, including that is Somnath, Gujarat.
- He used wealth to create a splendid capital city at Ghazni.
- He hired a scholar named Al-Biruni to write an account of subcontinent.
- This Arabic work is known as Kitab ul-Hind.
- Other kings were Chahamanas , later known as the Chauhans, rulerld over the region around Delhi and Ajmer.
- The best Known Vhahamana ruler was Prithviraja III Who defeated Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191 but lost to him in 1192.
The Cholas:-
From Uraiyur to Thanjavur:-
- A minor chiefly family known as the Muttaraiyar held power in the Kaveri delta.
- They were subordinate to the pallava kings of Kanchipuram.
- Vijayalaya captured the delta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninth century.
- He built the town of Thanjavur and a temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini there.
- The successors of Vijayalaya conquered neighbouring regions and the kingdom grew in size and power.
- The Pandyan and the Pallava territories to the south and north were made part of this kingdom.
- Rajaraja I become king in 985 and expanded control over most of the area.
- Rajaraja's. Son Rajendra I continued his policies and even raided the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka and countries of Southern Asia, developing a navy for these expeditions.
Splendid Temples and Bronze sculpture:-
- The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda-cholapuram are architectural and sculptural marvels.
- These temples were built by Rajaraja and his son Rajendra.
- Chola temples often became the nuclei of settlements which grew around them.
- These were centres of craft production.
- Temples were endowed with land by rulers as well as by others.
- The product of this land went into maintaining all the specialists who worked at the temple and very often lived near it such as priests garland makers , cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers etc .
- These temples were not only the place of worship , they were the hub of economic , social and cultural life as well.
- Amongst the crafts associated with temples the making of bronze images was the most distinctive.
- Chola bronze images are considered amongst the finest in the world.
- While most images were of deities sometimes images were made of devotees as well.
- Agriculture and irrigation:-
- Many of the achievements of the Cholas were made possible through new developments in agriculture.
- The river Kaveri branches off into several small channels before emptying into the Bay of Bengal.
- These Chennels overflow frequently, depositing fertile soil on their banks.
- Water from the channels also provide the necessary moisture for agriculture, particularly the cultivation of rice.
- Although agriculture had developed earlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, it was only from the fifth or sixth century that this area was opened up for large scale cultivation.
- Forests had to be cleared in some regions, land had to be levelled in other areas.
- In the delta region embankments had to be built to prevent flooding and canals has to be constructed to carry water to the fields.
- In many areas two crops were grown in a year.
- In many cases it was necessary to water crops artificially.
- A variety of methods were used for irrigation .
- In some areas well were dug.
- In other places huge tanks were constructed to collect rainwater.
- This irrigation require planning, organising labour and resources , maintaining these works.
- Most of the new rulers and people living in villages took an active interest in these activities.
The administration of the Empire:-
- The settlements of peasants(known as Ur) became.prosperous with the spread of irrigation agriculture.
- Groups of such villages formed larger units called Nadu.
- The village council and the Nadu performed several administrative functions including dispensing justice and collecting taxes.
- Rich peasants of the Vellala Caste exercised considerable control over the affairs of the Nadu under the supervision of central chola government.
- The Chola kings gave some rich landowners titles like muvendavelan, araiyar etc.
- Brahmanas often received land grants or brahmadeya.
- As a result, a large number of Brahmana settlements emerged in the Kaveri valley as other parts of South India.
- Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or Sabha of prominent Brahmana landholders
- These assemblies worked very efficiently.
- Their decisions were recorded in detail in inscription, often on the stone walls of temples.
- Association of traders known as nagarams also occasionally performed administrative functions in towns.
- Inscription from Uttaramerur in Chingleput district, Tamil Nadu, provide details of the way in which Sabha was organised.
- The Sabha had separate committees to look after irrigation work , gardens, temples etc.
- Name of those eligible to members of these committees were written on small tickets of palm leaf.
Thank you:-)
