"Bioinorganic chemistry " MSc

Bioinorganic Chemistry

• Bioinorganic chemistry is a relatively new and still growing interdisciplinary field of chemistry which largely focuses on the roles of metal ions in living systems.

Metalloporphyrins

• The metaloporphyrins are the complexes in which a metal ion is coordinated to four nitrogen atoms inside the cavity of the porphyrin ring in a square planar geometry. 
• The axial sites are available for other ligands.
•  Some examples of metalloporphyrins are hemoglobin, myoglobin, cytochromes and chlorophylls.

The porphyrin rings are the derivatives of a macrocyclic ligand called porphine.

 The porphine molecule consists of

•  unsubstituted tetra pyrole connected by methylidyne (CH) bridges.
•  These methylidyne carbon positions are labeled the alpha, beta, Gama, delta and 5, 10, 15, 20 positions in porphine and porphyrin rings respectively.
•  The 5, 10, 15, 20-tetraphenyl derivatives (tpd) are readily available because of their ease of synthesis and purification. 
• In porphyrin rings various groups are attached to the perimeter of porphine molecule.
•  The porphyrin ring can accept two hydrogen ions to form the dication (ie,+ 2 diacid) or donate two protons to form dianion.
•  In metalloporphyrin complexes the inner hydrogen atoms are replaced as protons by dipositive metal ions. 
• Therefore, the metal free porphyrin ligand has -2 charges. 
• Since, this macrocyclic ligand has a planar conjugated system of π bonds around its perimeter, it is much more rigid macrocyclic ligand than the crown ethers
•  Therefore, the ligand is more selective for certain metal atoms than the crown ethers.
•  It has a stronger preferences for the d8 Ni2+ ion. 
• The other metal ions may add above or below the square plane.
•  The structures of porphine molecule, metalloporphyrin and Fe-protoporphyrin IX or heme group are shown in Fig. 9.1.
• 
  

Fig. 9.1 Structure of (a) Porphine (b) Metalioporphynin (c) Fe-protoporphyrn DX

The porphyrin rings are rigid because of the delocalization of the π-electrons around the perimeter. 

The size of the cavity in the centre of porphyrin ring is ideal for accommodation of metal ions of the first transition series. 

If the metal ion is too small such as Ni 2+, the ring becomes ruffled to allow closer approach of nitrogen atoms to the metal ion. 

On the other hand, if the metal ion is too large, it can not fit into the cavity and occupies position above the ring which also becomes domed

Role of Iron in Living Systems

Iron is the most important transition metal involved in living systems, being vital for both plants and animals.

 In the living systems, iron has three well characterized systems:

• (1) Proteins that contain one or more porphyrin rings such as hemoglobin, myoglobin and cytochrome P450
• (2) Proteins that contain non-heme iron such as iron-sulphur compounds (ruberdoxin, ferredoxins nitrogenase)
• (3) The non-heme diiron oxo-bridged compounds such as carboxylates (hemerythrin ribonucleotide reductase and methane monooxygenase) 

Some important naturally occuring iron proteins and their functions in living systems are listed in Table 9.1.

Hemoglobin and Myoglobin

Hemoglobin contains two parts:

• heme groups and 
• globin proteins. 

A porphyrin ring containing an Fe atom is called a heme group. 

Cellular respiration is the process of using oxygen to break down glucose to produce CO₂, water and energy for use by the cell.

 It has molar mass of about 64500.

 Hemoglobin is found in red blood cells that are called erythrocytes and is resposible for their characteristic colour.

 Without hemoglobin the blood is either colourless or a different colour

 Hemoglobin picks up the weak ligand dioxygen from the lungs or gills and carries dioxygen in arterial blood to the muscles, where the oxygen is transferred to another heme containing protein, myoglobin which stores it untill oxygen is required to decompose glucose to produce energy, CO, and water 

Hemoglobin then uses certain amino and groups to bind CO, and carry it in venous blood back to the lungs

Each hemoglobin molecule is made up of four subunits, each of which consists of a globin protein in the form of folded helix or spiral. 

The globin proteins are of two types: 

• two are alpha and two are beta .

An alpha globin protein consists of 141 and an beta globin protein consists of 146 amino acids. 

Each protein consists of one polar and one non-polar group.

 In hemoglobin which has no dioxygen attached (and is therefore called as deoxyhemoglobin or reduced hemoglobin), the protein is attached to Fe(II) protoporphyrin IX through imidazole nitrogen of histidine residue in such a way that the polar groups of each protein are on the outside of the structure leaving a hydrophobic interier.

 Therefore, the heme group is held in a water resistant protein pocket.

Perutz has suggested a "trigger" mechanism for the cooperativity of the four heme groups in a process of oxygenation in hemoglobin. According to him there is a comformational change of the beme group upon coordination of an oxygen molecule which triggers interconversion of the T and R conformations. In deoryhemoglobin, iron is coordinated to four nitrogen atoms of the planar protoporphynin IX and the fifth coordination site is occupied by nitrogen atom on imidazole of a proximal histidine of globin protein. The sixth vacant site trans to the imidazole nitrogen is vacat and reserved for dicaygen. In deoxybemoglobin iron present as high spin Fe(II) with one electron ocupying the d orbital that points directly toward the nitrogen atoms of protoporphyrin DC. The presence of this electron increases the size of Fe(II) in these directions by repelling the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen atoms. As a consequence, Fe(ID becomes too large to fit easily within the hole provide by the planar protoporphyrin IX ring. The Fe() ion is, therefore, lies about 40 pm out of the plane in the direction of the histidine group, and the hese group is slightly bent into a domed shape

(Fig.9.2) The imo atom in deoxyhemoglobin has square based pyramidal coordination. The steric interactions between the histidine residue, the associated globin chain and hene group inhibit the free movement of the imm atos into the porphyrin ring Although O, is not a strong ligand, the coordination of the dioxygen molecule trami to the

histidine group as a sixth ligand ahen the strength of the ligand field and causes the pairing of electrons on iron without affecting the oxidation state of iron. Therefore, Fe(l) becomes low spin and diamagnetic. In low spin Fe(II) che six delectrons occupy the d.d. and d ochals. The darbinals is now empty and the previous effects of an electron present in this orbital in repelling the porphyrin nitrogen atoms is diminished. Therefore, the size of low spin Fell) becomes about 17 pm smaller that high spin Feil). Thus, the Fe() slips in the hole of an approximately planar porphyrin ring. As the iron slips into the hole, the midsole side chain of histidine F, al moves toward Fe atom, and the complex has an octahedral geometry Recent X-ray studies show that dioxygen is bound in a bent fashion with an Fe-0-0 angle of approximately 130. There is strong evidence for hydrogen bonding between an imidanile N-H of a distal histidine and the bound dioxygen.

the four subunits of hemoglobin are linked with each other through salt bridges between the for polypeptide chains. These salt bridges are formed mainly due to electrostatic interaction between the-NH; and-C00 groups present on all the four polypeptide chains of hemoglobin. The protein structures in hemoglobin consists of a peptide backbone with various side chains. These tide chains consist of a variety of non-polar (hydrocarboni), cationic (such as-NH;) and anionic (such -C00) groups. These salt bridges between the polypeptide chains in hemoglobin are now believed to introduce strain in the molecule. Therefore, the deoxy form of hemoglobin is called tense

state (or T state). The movement of iron atom and imidazole side chain of histidine F, toward the porphyrin plane results in breaking of some of the salt bridges. The breaking of these salt bridges reduces the strain in hemoglobin molecule. Therefore, the oxyform of hemoglobin is called relaxed state (i.e., R state). The T form of deoxyhemoglobin discourages the addition of first dioxygen molecule.

The bonding of one dioxygen molecule to a subunit of hemoglobin reduces the steric hindrance in the other subunits (due to breaking of salt bridges) and therefore encourages the bonding of dionygen molecules to the iron atom of the second subunit which in turn encourages the third as well as fourth subunits. The binding of dioxygen molecule is the most difficult in first subunit and the easiest in the last subunit due to conformational change in the protein chain (or polypeptide chain). Initial addition of a dioxygen molecule to high spin Fe(II) triggers the oxygenation of deoxyhemoglobin. This is called cooperative effect.

The phenomenon where the addition of dioxygen to one heme subunit encourages addion of the

dotypen molecules to other heme subunits is known as cooperative effect."

The successive equilibrium constants for binding of dioxygen molecules to each of the four iron

woms follow the order:

K₁ < K₂ < K₂ <K4

The fourth equilibrium constant (K) is found to be much larger than the first (K). This indicates that last O, molecule bound much more readily and tightly than the first. In the absence of conformational changes, K, would be much smaller than Ky. As a result, as soon as one or two dioxygen molecules are bound to iron atoms, all the four iron atoms are readily oxygenated. Conversely, as one O, molecule is removed from oxyhemoglobin the reverse conformational changes occur and successively decrease its affinity for oxygen. Therefore, initial removal of O, molecule from deoxyhemoglobin triggers the removal of remaining O, molecules. This phenomenon is also called as cooperative effect.

Fig. 9.3:1-oxo dimer (hematin)

The naked heme, the tron-porphyrin complex without accompanying the polypeptide chains is oxidized to Fe(III) by dioxygen molecule in aqueous solution and is converted immediately into a stableu-oxo dimer (Fig. 9.3) known as hematin. In hematin iron is high spin Fe(III). The hemarin is unable to transport oxygen. The polypeptide chain can be removed by treatment with HCl/acetone. The polypeptide chain in hemoglobin and myoglobin prevents oxidation of Fe(II) because: (1) The hydrocarbon environment round the iron has a low dielectric constant and is

hydrophobic and therefore act as a non-polar and provides non-aqueous environment.

(2) It provides steric hindrance and does not allow the formation of hematin.

The mechanism of the formation of hematin is as follows:

The first step involves the binding of the O, molecule to Fe(II) of the heme group, PFe(II)

PFe +0₂ Pre-O

Second step involves the coordination of bound oxygen to second heme group forming u peroso

complex.

+PFe"

Pre-0-0-Fe p

O Third step involves the cleavage of the peroxo complex into two ferryl complexes in which iron is present in + 4 formal oxidation state.

0. 0-Fe P-2PF-0

In the last step, the ferryl complex combines with an another heme group resulting in the formation of hematin.

Pre-O+PFeFFe-0-Fe P

Myoglobin (Mb)

Myoglobin (or deoxy-myoglobin) is a protein which has only one heme group per molecule and serves as an oxygen storage molecule in the muscles. It has molar mass of about 17000 and binds

Baterpinic Chemistry

9-7

doxygen molecule more strongly than hemoglobin. The yoglobin molecule is sindur to a single vir of hemoglobin Myoglobin is a five coordinate high spin Fell) complex with four of the ordinating positions occupied by N-atoms of the porphyrin ring. The fifth position is occupied by an Naim of an unidazole group of a histidine residue (a globin protein). The protein consists of 153 acids. This protein restricts access to the Fell) by a second heme and reduces the formation of hematin like Fe (III) dimer. The result is that the Fe(1) porphyrin complex survives long enough to nd and release dioxygen molecule. Such five coordinate heme complexes of Feill) are always high pin te with one electron occupying the da, orbital that points directly toward the four the size of Fe(II) in these directions

prpbyzn nitrogen atoms. The presence of this electron increases by repelling the lone pair of electrons of the nitrogen atoms.

The size of Fe(II) is 92 pm in the square pyramidal arrangement which is considered to be peado octahedral environment with the sixth ligand removed. The size of Fe() ia solarge that it in not fit into the hole of the planar porphyrin ring and therefore it lies about 40 pm away from the plane of the ring (Fig. 9.2). Therefore, high spin Fell) porphyrin complexes (in Hb and Mh) involves packering and twisting of porphyrin ring.

When a dioxygen molecule binds to Fe(II) at sixth coordination site trans to imidazole group of hinde residue, the complex converts to low spin Fe(1) octahedral complex and the electronic configuration changes tori (e, the six d-electrons occupy the dg. d, and, orbish leading to and da orbitals empty). The previous effect of two electrons occupying the citals in repelling the N atoms on X, Y and Z axes diminishes. Therefore, the low spin Fellt) son is maller (75 pm) and slips into the hole in the planar pophyrin ring As the Fe(10 kon moves, it pulls

beidzale group of histidine residue. Therefore, all the nitrogen atoms (including that of

painal histidine) approach more closer to the Fe(II) ion.

Physiology of Hemoglobin and Myoglobin Hemoglobin has relatively high affinity for dioxygen at high partial presure of dixygen where

The

vertibiranes diosygen enters the blood in the lungs or gills where the partial pere of dioxygen go has relatively high affauty for dioxygen at lower partial pressure of dissygen. In natively high and hemoglobin is virtually saturated with dioxygen in hurtigs When hemoglobin ramties dinnypen to muscle tissues, it experiences the lower partial pressure of dicaygen and s way for dioxygen has fallen off rapidly and in this situation affany of myoglobin for disaygen is wively high. Therefore, in muscle tissues dioxygen is thermodynamically favourable transferred han hecsoglobin to myoglobin. The reactions occuring in lungs and muscles a

Hb40,

HNO₂)

The cyproation equilibrium for myoglobin is represented as

9-8

Organometallic and Binorganic Chemistry

Mh+ O₂ Mb(0₂)

K

Iff is the fraction of myoglobin bearing oxygen and Po, is the equilibrium partial

dioxygen, then

K

K PO 1+K Pos if

pressure of

to br

or

The equilibrium constant K is called the binding constant of myoglobin for 0₂.

This is the equation for the hyperbolic curve for myoglobin (Fig. 9.4).

100

80

aope w

de

stof

hat tow

avea at

1. Th

harth his

Bohr's

The c

60

Mb

HypH-7.6 Hb pH 6.8

40+

Partial pressure of O, in lungs

Partial pressure of O, in muscle

0

20

40

60

80

100

20

Percentage satuartion with O₂

120

pure d

be Lunge

yhtey

The 1

the w

Partial pressure of O₂ in mm Hg

Fig. 9.4 Oxygen Dissociation Curves for Hemoglobin and Myoglobin. Showing how Hemoglobin is Able to Absorb O, Efficiently in the Lungs yet Transfer it to Myoglobin in Muscle Tissue

The hemoglobin curve does not follow such an equation. Hemoglobin has more complex behaviour ms it has four heme subunits. It follows an emperically modified form with Por replaced by Po

K = [Mb(0₂).]

K M

---

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"Force and Law of Motion"

 Force and law of motion

• Topics to be covered :- 
• Introducing
• What causes motion
• Force
• Balanced and unbalanced forces
• Galileo's idea of force and motion
• Newton's first law of Motion
• Newton's second law of motion
• Mass Vs inertia
• Newton's third law of motion
• Conservation of momentum

Introduction:- What causes motion?

• External force is needed to make a stationary body move 
• External force is needed to stop a moving body

Balanced and unbalanced forces:-

Balanced force:- 

• Equal and opposite forces
• Do not cause any change in motion
• Example:- Tug of war

Unbalanced forces:- 

• Unequal forces 
• Can be in the same or opposite direction
• Causes a change in motion

Law of motion:- 

• Aristotle's law of uniform motion:- An external force is required to keep a body in uniform motion.

Aristotle's fallacy:-

• He didn't discuss about opposite forces like frictional forces

Conclusion:-

• An external force is required to keep a body in motion, only if resistive forces like frictional and viscous force are present.

Galileo's Law :-

• A body moving on a frictionless surface should move with constant velocity.

Conclusion:- 

• Aristotle law was falsified by Galileo.
• A body at rest or in uniform motion experience zero net force.

Newton's first law of motion:- 

• A body at rest tends to remain at rest and a body in uniform motion tends to remain in the state of motion until and unless an external / unbalanced force is applied on it.
• Example:- Ball at rest , Ball in uniform motion

What is inertia?

• Inertia is the resistance of a body. To change its state of motion.
• Or
•  tendency of the body at rest tends to stay at rest  and tendency of the body in motion to keep in motion is called inertia.
• Example:-Jerk experienced when brakes applied suddenly.
• Tendency to bend on one side on a bike during sharp turn.

Newton's second law is about 

• Newton's first law was for scenario where net force is zero
• Newton's second law is for scenario with net force not equal to zero 

What is momentum ?.

• Momentum is product of mass of a body and it's velocity
• It is a vector quantity
• It is denoted by 'p'
• Mathematical expression is p=mv
• SI unit = kgm/s
• Dependency of force on mass 
• Force required to push object with same velocity 
• Greater the mass,more the force required to set the body in motion

Dependency of force on change in velocity

• Greater the velocity of moving object , more the force is required to stop the object
• Dependency of force on change in momentum in a  given time, greater is the force that needed to be applied.

Mathematical formulation of second law of motion:-

• Let an object of mass , m is moving along straight line with initial velocity, u
• It is uniformly accelerated to velocity, v in time t
• So initial momentum p(initial) = mu
• final momentum p(final) = mv
• Change in momentum, 
• dp = p(final) - p(initial) 
• = mv-mu = m(v-u)
• Change in momentum w.r.t time, dp/dt =m(v-u)/t
• Or, the applied force , F = km(v-u)/t = kma
• When k=1 
• F= ma 
• This is second law of motion

Newton's second law of motion:-

• The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction in which the force acts
• F  is directly proportional to (rate of change of momentum) 
• F = k(dp)/dt 
• When k=1 

• F = dp/dt

Alternatively:- 

• The relationship between an object's mass m, it's acceleration a , the applied force F is F=ma the direction of force is the same as the direction of acceleration.
• Another way of derivation :-
• F= dp/ dt

• F = d(mv)/dt
• F = m(dv)/dt
• F = ma 
• Where F= force applied,  m= mass of object , a= acceleration of an object
• Unit of force = Kgm/s^2
• S.I unit of force is newton (N)

Consistency of second law with first law:- 

• According to second law, F= ma
• If F = 0 then a=0 (m cannot be zero)

• Also acceleration is zero if the body is at rest or in uniform motion

According to first law, 

If a= 0 , F=0 

So two laws are consistent with each other.

Impulse:-

• Impulse is defined as a force multiplied by time it acts over. 
• Example :- Tennis racket striking the ball 
• Impulse = change in momentum.
• Because as per definition , I = F×t = dp

Newton's third law of motion:-

• To every action ,there is always an equal and opposite reaction
• Example:- Tonie holding ball
• He exerts force on ball to hold it - action
• The ball exert force back on his hand :- reaction
• Apple falling down the tree.
• Apple is pulled by earth due to gravitational force- action 
• Earth is pulled by Apple also - reaction 
• But mass of earth is very large as compared to Apple . So for e exerted by earth on Apple is also very large .so net force is acting on Apple and apple  down

Action and reaction forces :- 

• Action and reaction forces always act on different bodies 
• Action and reaction forces occurs at the same instant 
• There is no cause effect relation between them 

Conservation of momentum:-

• In an isolated system, the total momentum is conserved (does not mean zero) 

Example1:-

• Bullet from rifle 
• Initial momentum:- zero and kinetic energy = zero
• After fire :- momentum of bullet + momentum of rifle = zero but KE   increase
• So momentum is conserved 
• Momentum before collision = momentum after collision

English grade 6th

  Chapter 1 " Who did Patrick's homework"

1. What did Patrick think his cat was playing with? What was it really? (2)

Ans: Patrick thought that his cat was playing with a little doll. It was, in fact, a very small-sized man, an elf.

2. Why did the little man grant Patrick a wish? (2)

Ans: Patrick had saved the tiny man’s life from the cat by not handing him back to the cat. So he promised to fulfil one wish of Patrick.

3. What was Patrick’s wish? (3)

Ans: Patrick hated doing homework. His greatest wish was that the little man should do all his homework till the end of the session.

4. In what subjects did the little man need help, to do Patrick’s homework? (5, 6)

Ans: The little man needed Patrick’s help in maths, English and history.

5. How did Patrick help him? (7)

Ans: Patrick sat beside the little man and guided him. He brought books from the library and read out to him.

6. Who do you think did Patrick’s homework – the little man, or Patrick himself? Give reasons for your answer. (9, 10)

Ans: It was Patrick himself who actually did all the homework. He had to help the elf again and again with guidance and books.

A House, A Home Summary In English

Poet :- Lorraine M. Halli

A house is made of brick and stone and hard wood. It includes glass windows and very often a yard. There are a few other things also like the tiled floors, plastered walls and many doors.

However, all these things do not really make a home. It is a loving family which makes a real home. In such a family people care for each other and work unselfishly.

Chapter 2 How the Dog Found Himself

Working With the Text  (Page21)

Discuss these questions in pairs before you write the answers.

1. Why did the dog feel the need for a master? (1,2)

Ans: The dog was sick and tired of going about alone in search of food. And he did not feel safe. So he decided to have a master.

2. Who did he first choose as his master? Why did he leave that master? (3)

Ans: The dog first chose a wolf as his master. But he found the wolf afraid of the bear. So he left the company of the wolf.

3. Who did he choose next? (3)

Ans: Next, the dog chose a bear as his master, because he was stronger than the Wolf.

4. Why did he serve the Lion for a long time? (4)

Ans: The dog served the Lion for a long time because he had no complaint against him. Secondly, he felt safe and secure. No other wild animal dared to displease him.

5. Who did he finally choose as his master and why? (9, 10)

Ans: The dog finally chose a man as his master. Even the lion was afraid of man. So the dog was convinced that man was the strongest creature on earth.

B.A summary of the story is given below. Fill in the blanks to complete it taking appropriate phrases from the box. 

This is the story of___________ , who used to be___________ . He decided to find a

master___________ . First he found ______________  , but the wolf was afraid of

_________ . The dog thought that the bear was______________ . After some time the

dog met__________ who seemed the strongest. He stayed with the lion for a long

time. One day he realised that the lion was _________________  . To this day, the dog

remains man’s best friend.

Ans. This is the story of a dog, who used to be his own master. He decided to find a master, stronger than anyone else. First, he found a wolf but the wolf was afraid of the bear. The dog thought that the bear was the strongest of all. After some time the dog met a lion, who seemed the strongest. He stayed with the lion for a long time. One day he realised that the lion was afraid of man. To this day, the dog remains man’s best friend.

Poem 2

The Kite Summary In English

Poet:- Harry Behn

A new kite is wonderful to watch. Diving and dipping in the blue sky it moves its tail with a noise. It soars high with the wind. At this time it sails like a ship with only one sail. It rides on the current of air just as the ship rides on the waves of the ocean. When the wind falls it seems to rest. When the string which holds the kite goes slack, the master of the kite winds back the string. The kite comes back to the earth. It is there again in the sky when a new wind blows filling the wings of the kite with the air again.

However, when the string of the kite is caught in a tree, the kite flaps. It soon turns into a very torn and dirty thing.

Chapter 3 "Taro's Reward"

Date: 1 Sep 2021

Working With the Text    (Page 34)

A   Answer the following questions.

1. Why did Taro run in the direction of the stream? (5)

Ans: Taro ran in the direction of the stream because he was thirsty. Secondly, he had never before heard the sound of falling water in that area:

2. How did Taro’s father show his happiness after drinking sake? (7)

Ans: Sake gave warmth as well as energy to the old man. Taro’s father stopped shivering and started dancing. In this way, he showed his happiness.

3. Why did the waterfall give Taro sakeand others water? (12)

Ans: The waterfall obliged Taro and changed water into sake. The reason was that he was a thoughtful son. He served his old parents sincerely. Sake was the reward for his goodness. Other people were just greedy. So they got only plain water.

4. Why did the villagers want to drown Taro? (10, 11)

Ans: The villagers went to the waterfall to collect sake. But they got only plain cold water. They thought that Taro had tricked them. So they looked for Taro to punish him.

5. Why did the Emperor reward Taro? (13)

Ans: The Emperor of Japan rewarded Taro for being good and kind towards his parents. This was Emperor’s way to encourage all children to respect, obey and serve their parents.

B. Mark the right item.

1. Taro earned very little money because

(i)he didn’t work hard enough.

(ii)the villagers didn’t need wood.

(iii)the price of wood was very low.

2.Taro decided to earn extra money

(i)to live a more comfortable life.

(ii)to buy his old father some sake.

(iii)to repair the cracks in the hut.

3. The neighbour left Taro’s hut in a hurry because

(i)she was delighted with the drink.

(ii)she was astonished to hear Taro’s story.

(iii)she wanted to tell the whole village about the waterfall.

Ans. 1. (iii), 2. (ii), 3. (iii)

The Quarrel Summary In English

Poet ;- Eleanor Farjeon

The poet quarrelled with his brother on some very petty matter. It was so petty that now he does not remember what it was. One thing led to another. Both of them felt that they were right. It had started as something small. It had become big in the end. So they began to hate each other. The afternoon became very tense and unpleasant for both of them.

Then suddenly, the poet’s brother patted him on the back. He said that the two of them could not go along like that for a long time. It would be difficult to pass the night in that manner. He said that it was his mistake, Just then the poet felt that his brother was right. In fact he himself was wrong.

Chap 4 An Indian Woman. In Space : Kalpana Chawla

Answer the following questions.

1. Where was Kalpana Chawla born? Why is she called an Indian-American? (3)

Ans: Kalpana Chawla was born at Kamal, in Haryana. She was born in India, but married an American and became a naturalised citizen. So she is called an Indian- American.

2. When and why did she go to the U.S? Who did she marry? (2, 3)

Ans: Kalpana went to the U.S. for higher studies in aeronautical engineering. There she married the flight instructor Harrison.

3.How did she become an astronaut? What gave her the idea that she could be an astronaut? (3)

Ans: Kalpana had already got a bachelor’s degree in aeronautical engineering before she went to the U.S. She earned her PhD in aerospace engineering. In 1994 she was selected by NASA for training as an astronaut. She was encouraged by the people around her.

4. What abilities must an astronaut have, according to the journalist? (6)

Ans: An astronaut needs to know a lot about biology and aeronautical engineering. He/ she must have a wide knowledge of science subjects.

 5. Describe Kalpana Chawla’s first mission in space. (5)

Ans:  Kalpana’s first mission in the space shuttle, Columbia, was nearly 16 days long. She went around the earth 252 times. Among her colleagues were a Japanese and Ukranian astronauts. They performed so many experiments.

6. What does Kalpana Chawla say about pursuing a dream? Do you agree with her that success is possible? (7)

Ans:  Kalpana Chawla, a girl from a small town, touched the skies. In her message to college students of Chandigarh, from space, she said that it was always possible to realise one’s dream. One could certainly get success provided one had the vision and the courage.

B. Read the newspaper report to find the following facts about the Columbia’s ill- fated voyage.

1. Date and place of lift off:_____________________________________________________

2. Number of astronauts on board:_______________________________________________

3. Number of days it stayed in space:_____________________________________________

4. Number of experiments done by scientists:_______________________________________

5. Date of return journey: ______________________________________________________

6. Height at which it lost contact:_________________________________________________

Ans:

1 .16 January 2003                

2. Seven

3 .About 16 days eighty experiments

4 .1 February 2003 6. 200,000 feet

Beauty Poem Summary

The poet is trying to say in this poem that beauty is in everything. All the small things we do or the environment around us, everything has beauty in it. Everything has its own importance. All things are beautiful in their own unique way. Sunlight has its own beauty. Beauty can be seen in the growing corns, people who are working and dancing for getting good harvest. Beauty is not only seen but can also be heard or felt. For instance, when night falls, wind blows slowly, the sound of rainfall, or when a singer sings. They all give pleasure to the mind and make it feel happy.Beauty is not just outside, it is within. Beautiful is the self. Our good deeds, happy thoughts please everyone are all beautiful.Our dreams are also beautiful as they give us reason to advance and work with zeal. Beauty is in your style of work, the way you take rest and sleep.Beauty is everywhere. It is in attitude, the way we look at things. Actually everything is beautiful in its own unique manner, the need is to feel it.

Chapter 5 A Different Kind of School

 Working With the Text  (Page 62)

A. Put these sentences from the story in the right order and write them out in a paragraph. Don’t refer to the text.

I shall be so glad when today is over.

Having a leg tied up and hopping about on a crutch is almost fun, I guess.

I don’t think I’ll mind being deaf for a day—at least not much.

But being blind is so frightening.

Only you must tell me about things.

Let’s go for a little walk.

The other bad days can’t be half as bad as this.

Ans: Let’s go for a little walk. Only you must tell me about things. I shall be so glad when today is over. The other bad days can’t be half as bad as this. Having a leg tied up and hopping about on a crutch is almost fun, I guess. I don’t think I’ll mind being deaf for a day, at least not much. But being blind is so frightening.

B. Answer the following questions:

1. Why do you think the writer visited Miss Beam’s school? (1)
Ans: The writer had heard much about Miss Beam’s new teaching method. So he visited her school to see the new play-way method personally.

2. What was the ‘game’ that every child in the school had to play? (9)
Ans: Every child in the school had to play the role of being blind, deaf, dumb, injured and lame once in a term. It was a sort of game and training.

3. “Each term every child has one blind day, one lame day …”. Complete the line. Which day was the hardest? Why was it the hardest? (9, 11, 15)
Ans:  “… one injured day and one dumb day.” Being blind was the hardest day. The student felt that he/she was going to be hit by something every moment.

4. What was the purpose of these special days? (5, 9)
Ans: The purpose of these special days was to give the children a personal taste of misfortune. They learnt to help the needy in society. Such training made them good citizens.

Pact with the sun 

Chapter 1

Date: 5 Sep 2021

1. How did the two baby-birds get separated?

Ans: The two baby birds lived in a tall tree with their mother. One day a big storm blew. The tree came down. The mother bird was killed. The strong wind blew the two chicks away to the other side of the forest at a little distance from each other. Thus they got separated from each other.

2.Where did each of them find a home?

Ans: One of the young birds came down near a cave. A gang of robbers lived there. The other bird landed outside the ashram of a rishi at a little distance.

3.What did the first bird say to the stranger?

Ans: The first bird saw the stranger (the King). He called the robbers to hurry up and rob the man of his jewels and his horse. Indirectly he asked the stranger to leave the place at once.

4. What did the second bird say to him?

Ans: The second bird welcomed the king to the ashram. He requested the stranger to drink water, take rest and make himself comfortable. He added that his brother lived in the company of robbers, so he talked like them.

5.’ How did the rishiexplain the different ways in which the two birds behaved?

Ans: The king told the rishi about the different behaviour of the two birds. The rishi explained that the first bird repeated the words of the robbers. The second bird repeated what he had always heard at the ashram. Their different ways were the results of their company.

6. Which one of the following sums up the story best?

(i) A bird in hand is worth two in the bush.

(ii)One is known by the company one keeps.

(iii)A friend in need is a friend indeed.

Ans: (ii) One is known by the company one keeps.

Chapter 2 The Friendly Mongoose

1. Why did the farmer bring a baby mongoose into the house?

Ans: The farmer had a small son. He wanted to have a pet to give company to his child. So he brought home a baby mongoose to play with the child.

2. Why didn’t the farmer’s wife want to leave the baby alone with the mongoose?

Ans:The farmer’s wife did not trust even her pet mongoose. She did n’t want to leave her son alone with an animal.

3. What was the farmer’s comment on his wife’s fears?

Ans: The farmer understood why his wife was afraid of leaving the baby alone with the mongoose. Therefore, he tried to remove her fear. He said that the mongoose was a friendly animal, as sweet and gentle as their own baby.

4. Why did the farmer’s wife strike the mongoose with her basket?

Ans: The farmer’s wife returned home with a heavy basket. She noticed blood on the face and paws of the mongoose. She had no doubt that the mongoose had killed her son. So in anger she hit the animal with the basket. The poor mongoose died on the spot.

5. Did she repent her hasty action? How does she show her repentance?

Ans: The farmer’s wife saw the snake tom into pieces. Her own son was safely asleep. She realised her mistake. She felt very sorry. She touched the mongoose and cried. She saw the painful result of her hasty action.

Chapter 3 The Shepherd’s Treasure

1. The shepherd had n’t been to school because

(i)he was very poor.

(ii)there were very few schools in those days.

(iii)he wasn’t interested in studies.

Choose the right answer.

Ans: (ii) There were very few schools in those days.

2.Who visited the shepherd one day. and why?

Ans:  The shepherd soon became famous for his wisdom and friendly nature. The king of Iran heard about him and visited him. He was riding a mule and dressed like a shepherd.

3.Why did the other governors grow jealous of the shepherd?

Ans: The common shepherd was appointed the governor of a small district. He was loved and honoured by the people. His fame spread far and wide. So the governors of other provinces grew jealous of him.

4.Why was the new governor called to the palace?

Ans: The jealous governors poisoned the king’s ears against the new shepherd-governor. They reported that the new governor was dishonest, and he always carried his ill-gotten treasure in an iron chest. So the king called him to the palace to see that treasure.

5. Why was everyone delighted to see the iron chest on the camel’s back?

Ans: Those who were present in the palace, thought that the iron-box contained valuables. If their report proved true, the king would dismiss the shepherd. So they were delighted. They waited anxiously to see the contents of the box.

6. (i) What did the iron chest contain?

(ii)Why did the shepherd always carry it?

(iii)Is it an example of the shepherd’s humility or wisdom or both?

Ans: (i) The iron chest contained only an old blanket.

(ii)The shepherd always carried his blanket in the box because it was his oldest and time-tested friend. It would protect him in case the king took away his post and power.

(iii)Yes, it is an example of the shepherd’s humility as well as wisdom.

7. How did the king reward the new governor?

Ans:The king was highly pleased with the new governor’s humility and honesty. He rewarded him with a promotion. He made him the governor of a much bigger province the same day.

Chapter 4 The Old-Clock Shop

1. What made Ray think the visitor was not really a shopper?

Ans: Ray was deaf and dumb, but a good judge of men. His old wise eyes told him that the new visitors to his shop at that late hour, was not a shopper or customer. There was no friendliness in his eyes.

2. Why do you think he had come to the shop?

Ans: The visitor had not come to the shop to buy anything. Perhaps his intention was to loot the owner of his cash. He was in dire need of money.

. How did Ray communicate with him?

Ans: Ray could neither speak nor hear. So he communicated with his customer by writing his message on a notepad. The visitor also wrote his reply on paper.

4. What do you think the man said to his friend who waited at the door?

Ans: The older man pointed to his ears and shook his head from side to side. Thus he conveyed to his younger companion that the shop owner could neither hear ‘ nor speak.

5. Raypeople in exchange for their old watches and clocks?

Ans: Ray was not a pawnbroker, a person who lends money on security of some item. He did not lend money on interest. He was, however, kind and helpful. He could n’t say ‘No’ to the needy people.

6. “The watch was nothing special and yet had great powers.” In what sense did it have ‘great powers’?

Ans: The watch was just ordinary. But it had the power to pull a person out of a bad situation. The older man got the money he needed without hurting Ray. The generous shopkeeper also escaped physical injury. In this sense the watch had great powers.

7. Do you think the man would ever come back to pick up the watch?

Ans:No, it is very unlikely that the older man would ever come back to pick up his watch. He had, after all, got a price higher than the watch was worth for.

8. When did “the unfriendly face” of the visitor turn truly friendly?

Ans: The unfriendly face of the visitor turned friendly when he got a fifty dollar note for his ordinary watch. He felt obliged and happy.

.

"Why do we fall ill"

 Topics to be covered in this lesson:-

Introduction 

Health and its failure

• The significance of 'health'
• Personal and community issues both matter for health
• Distinction between "healthy" and "Disease free"

Disease and it's causes 

• what does disease look like?
• Acute and chronic disease
• Chronic diseases and poor health
• Causes of diseases
• Infectious and non- Infectious causes

Infectious diseases

• Infectious agents
• Means of spread
• organ specific and tissue specific manifestation
• Principles of treatment
• Principles of prevention

Introduction:-

Health and its failure:-

What is health?

• A state of being well enough to function well physically , mentally and socially.

Requirements for healthy life cycle:-

• Balance diet
• Clean and hygienic environmental
• Proper exercise
• Proper sleep 
• Social equality and harmony

What is meant by disease?

• Dis--> disturb and Ease --> comfort
• Disease means something is wrong with our body and we feel unwell.

Reasons:- 

• Malfunctioning of body,
• Unbalance diet,
• Dirty and unhygienic conditions,
• Lack of exercise,
• Poor sleep,
• Poverty

Distinction between healthy and disease free:-

Healthy:- 

1.  It is a state of complete physical, mental and social well being
2.  It depends upon the individual as well as physical and social environment.
3. A healthy person will be disease free.
4. Healthy person is energetic and able to perform as per requirement.

Disease free:-

1. It is a state of absence of comfort in any part of body ,
2. It is related to the individual only
3. A disease free person can be healthy or unhealthy,
4. Performance of a disease free person depends upon environment and personal attitude.

Disease:- 

• Dis - Disturbance, Ease - Comfort
• Disease results in a change in either the functioning or appearance of one or more system of the body for the worse.
• Example:- headache,fever etc.

Disease : Sign and symptoms

Symptoms:- 

• symptoms of disease are the things we feel as being 'wrong'
• Symptoms indicate that there might be a disease

Signs:-

•  signs of a disease are the things a. Doctor looks for on the basis of symptoms .
• Signs indicate presence of a particular disease.

Acute Vs Chronic diseases:-

Acute diseases:- 

• Disease which last for very short periods of time.
• Example:- common cold, cough, flu, tonsillitis, appendicitis, headaches.

Chronic diseases:- 

• Diseases which last for a long time
• Example:- Asthma , Diabetes, Glaucoma (eye disease: optic nerve damage) , Allergy

Causes of disease:- 

• There are many levels of cause of a disease

 1. Immediate cause:- 

• The first cause identified when a person is suffering from a disease
• Mostly the immediate causes are the infecting organisms like bacteria, virus , fungi etc.
• Note :- Not all disease 's immediate cause is micro organisms
• Example:- cancer, high blood pressure

2. Contributing cause:- 

• Reason identified after the immediate cause.
• Contributing cause along cannot cause the disease
• Example:-
• Cholera is caused by Bacteria ( immediate cause)
• Here contributing causes are lack of cleanliness, poverty, Genetically weak.
• So contributing cause + Immediate cause together causes the disease.

Infectious Vs Non Infectious diseases:-

Infectious disease:-

• Diseases for which microbes are the immediate cause.
• Infection can spread from one person to another
• Infectious agents:- microbes
• Termed as communicable / contagious diseases.
• Example:- Flu, common cold, cough , measles.

Non Infectious diseases:- 

• Diseases for which microbes are not the cause
• Does not spread from one person to another.
• Internal ,non Infectious causes (like genetic causes) 
• Example:- cancer, diabetes , high blood pressure
• Termed as non- communicable / non contagious diseases

Infectious agents:- 

• Many categories of microbes can act as infectious agents
• Virus , Protozoa, Bacteria, worms, fungi

Diseases caused by different infectious agents:-

Virus :- 

• common cold, influenza, dengue,AIDs (Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome)

Bacteria:- 

• Typhoid, Cholera, Tuberculosis (TB) ,Anthrax

Fungi :-

•  Skin infections

Protozoa:- 

• Malaria, Kala Azar 

Worms:- 

• stomach ,Interesting infection,  Elephantiasis

How does knowledge of infectious agents helps to decide treatments?

• Different microbes have different like process,so different drugs affect these different life processes.
• Example:- Bacterial infection be Viral infection.

Means of spread of Infectious diseases:-

• Ways by which infection can spread from one person to another.
• Some ways are :- air, water,Direct and indirect contact, sexual contact, vectors

Air:- air borne diseases

• Droplets thrown by an infected person during coughing/ sneezing .
• Example:- common cold , pneumonia, tuberculosis

Water :- Water borne diseases

•  Excreta of infected person gets mixed with drinking water .
• Example:- Cholera, typhoid, hepatitis A 

Direct and Indirect contact:-

Direct contact:- touch , kiss, hand shake

Indirect contact:- Things used by infected person

Example:- Ringworm, Conjunctivitis (eye infection) , head lice, skin infections

Sexual contact:- 

• Sexual act with an infected person. Example:- AIDs , Syphillis
• AIDs spread only by sexual contact, mother to child and blood transfusions and not by air, water and direct and indirect contacts

Vectors:- 

• Insects /animals which act as carrier of infection from infected to healthy person are called vectors.
• Example:- Malaria,Dengue, Chikungunya(mosquitoes) Rabies , a viral infection (dog)

Terminologies related to infection:-

Pathogen:-

• Microbes that cause diseases
• Example:- Bacteria, viruses

Host:- 

• Organism on which microbes attacks/ infects 
• E.g. Human Beings 

Parasite:-

• Organism that live in/on the body of host and derives nutrients from host, not necessarily kill the host 
• E.g.:- Tapeworms, lice

Note:- 

• Pathogen always cause disease to host 
• Parasite may or may not cause disease to host.

Vectors:-  

• Animals which introduce parasites into the host body . Example:- Mosquito.

How do the infectious agents affect our body?

• Target side is decided by the point of entry 
• If it is through mouth it attack on gut line or liver
• If it is bacteria ,then it attack through gut lining and cause Typhoid
• If it is virus, then it attack on Liver and cause Jaundice.

Now if the entry point is nose then it attack on lungs and cause breathing problems such as Asthma.

• Can also spread from one part to different body parts  
• Example:- Mosquito bite --> Malaria --> Brain fiver.

Some agents also target the immune system of the body 

Immune system:-  

• Network of cells that protects the body from foreign particles 
• A group of cells of the affected tissue is employed to kill off the microbes . This process is known as Inflammation.

Consequences of Inflammation:-

•  Pain , Swelling, Fiver
• For example:- In AIDs , virus attack the immune system.

Principles of treatment of an Infectious disease:- 

Two ways to treat :- 

1. Reduce the effect:- 

• Take medicine to reduce pain, fiver. 
• Take rest to conserve energy.

2. Kill the cause:- 

• Take appropriate medicines to kill microbes

Principles of prevention:- 

General ways of prevention:- 

• Prevent exposure to microbes 
• Avoid overcrowded living conditions,
• Clean drinking water.

• Public as well as individual hygiene
• Proper nourishment and food to keep the immune system strong enough

2.specific ways of prevention:- vaccination

Vaccination:-

•  Process in which vaccine is given to improve the immunity of the body against a specific disease

Vaccine :- 

• Biological preparation that resembles a disease causing microbes 
• Made of dead or very weak microbes

Vaccination success:- 

• Smallpox is eradicated 
• Diseases like polio , tetanus, measles have been reduced to a large extent

Effective vaccination :- 

• Effectiveness of vaccines varies with the type of disease.
• For older people , larger doses are needed .
• Vaccination schedule has to be followed.

Prevention is better than cure because:-

• During disease, body functions are damage ,
• Treatment takes time ,
• Diseased person become source for other person.
• So prevention is better than cure.

Thankyou :-)

"Improvement in food resources" Grade 9th

 Topics to be covered :-

Improvement in crop yield

Crop yield improvement

Crop production improvement 

-Nutrient management

• Manure
• Fertilizers

- Irrigation

- Cropping patterns

Crop protection management

Animal husbandry 

• Cattle farming
• Poultry farming
• Egg and Broiler production
• Fish production 
• Bee keeping

Introduction :-

Why do we need to improve crop yields?

Ans :- We need to improve crop yields to meet needs of growing population. But there is less scope of increasing the area of land under cultivation. Therefore , it is necessary to increase our production efficiency. So we need to improve crop yields.

Efforts used in past to improve food productivity are:-

Green Revolution (Bumper production of food grains)

Blue Revolution (Enhance fish production)

White revolution (increased milk production)

Yellow revolution (increased oil production)

Golden revolution (increased pulse production)

However, these revolutions means more use of natural resources that would destroyed natural resource balance completely. 

So there is a need for sustainable practice in agriculture and animal husbandry.

Can improving crop production solve the problem of malnutrition?

Malnutrition:- It means lack of proper nutrition that is mostly seen in children.

Improved crop yield alone cannot solve the persisting problem of malnutrition and Hunger.

Solution of problem:- 

• Good economic conditions to ensure affordability.
• For good economic conditions, one should give better income to those involved in agriculture.

Improvement in crop yield::

Crops :- 

•Pulaes [Gram , pea, black gram, green gram, Lentil] 

• source of protein.

• Cereals [Rice, wheat, Maize, Millets]

• Source of carbohydrates

Oil seeds[Groundnut, Castor, Soyabean, Sesame, Linseed, Sunflower]

• Source of fats

Vegetables:- Source of vitamin and minerals .

Fruits:- Source of vitamin and minerals

A diet which has a combination of carbohydrates, fats, vitamin, minerals is called a good diet.

Crop seasons:- 

• Different crops require different climatic conditions, temperature and photoperiods for their growth and completion of their life cycle
• Photoperiod means duration of sunlight 
• Plants need sunlight for manufacturing of food by the process called photosynthesis.

In India, there are two different season crops:-

1. Kharif season crops:-

• Grow in rainy season (from month of June to October)
• Example :- Paddy, Soyabean, Pigeon pea, maize, cotton, green gram and black gram.

2. Rabi season crops:-

• Grow in winter season (from November to April)
• Example:- wheat, gram, peas mustard, linseed.

There are certain crops which are grown between March and June called "Zaid crops"

Improvement in crop yields:-

The major groups of activities for improving crop yields can  be classified as:-

- Crop variety improvement.

- Crop production improvement

--Crop protection management.

Crop variety improvement:-

1. Improving /finding a variety of crop that gives better yield.

Why is crop variety improvement done?

1. Better yield [increase the productivity of crop per acre]
2. Improved quality 

• Quality consideration of crop products vary from crop to crop
• Example:- greater the protein contained by pulses, better will be the quality

3.3.Enhanc biotic and abiotic resistance

• - crop production can go down due to biotic and abiotic stresses.
• -Biotic causes are diseases, insects and nematodes.
• Abiotic causes are drought, salinity, water logging, heat, cold and frost.
• Varieties resistance to these stresses can improve crop production.

4. Lesser maturity duration:-

• Maturity duration means time interval from sowing to harvesting.
• The shorter the duration of the crop from sowing to harvesting, the more economical is the variety
• Such short duration allow farmers to grow multiple rounds of crops in a year.
• Short duration also reduces the cost of crop production

5. Wider adaptability:-

• One variety which has ability to adopt differned climate, will be grown in different areas so increase the yield.

6. Desirable agronomic characteristics:-

• If we develop those varieties of crops which contain agronomic traits, then it will help in setting higher production.
• Example:- tallness is the desirable character of fodder.
• Dwarfness is desirable character of Cereals, so that less nutrients are consumed by these crops.

How is crop variety improvement done?

By hybridisation

• crossing between genetically dissimilar plants
• - Inter varietal,
• - Inter specific

• - Inter genetic
• Hybridisation introduces desired characteristics resulting in genetically modified crops.

Another way of improving the crop is by introducing a gene that would provide the desired characteristics.

For new varieties of crops to be accepted, it is necessary that 

• - Good quality seeds to be provided to farmers,
• - Crop variety suitable for diverse climatic conditions are good.
• - Crop varieties tolerant to high soil salimity are good.

Crop production management:-

Several practices followed to increase crop production.

Crop production is directly proportional to inputs

• -No cost production 
• - Low cost production
• - High cost production

How is crop production management done?

• Nutrient management,
• Irrigation
• Cropping pattern

Nutrient management:-

• Nutrient is a substance that provides nourishment to the plants.

Plants need 16 nutrients

• - Carbon (by air)
• - Oxygen (by air and water)
• - hydrogen (by water)
• - Nitrogen (by soil)
• - Phosphorus (by soil)
• - Potassium (by soil)
• - calcium (by soil)
• -Magnesium (by soil)
• - Sulphur (by soil)
• - Iron (by soil)
• - Manganese (by soil)
• - Boron (by soil)
• - Copper (by soil)
• - Zinc (by soil)
• - Molybdenum (by soil)
• - Chlorine (by soil) 

Note:- nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, Magnesium, sulphur are macronutrients i.e. needed in large amount

Whereas iron, manganese, boron, copper , zinc , molybdenum and chlorine are micronutrients i.e needed in small amount.

Along with these nutrients plants also need sunlight.

Why is nutrient management needed?

Because deficiency of nutrients can results in :-

- reduced growth, 

- Adverse effect on reproduction,

- More prone/ susceptibility to disesdis.

How is nutrient management done?

Enrich the soil with nutrients in the form of manure and fertilizers

Manure:- substance that increases soil fertility

Preparation of manure:- decomposition of animal excreta and plant wastes.

Constituents:- organic matter + nutrients

Functions:- organic matter improves soil structure.

- by increasing waste soil structure

- helps in drainage ( in clayey soil)

- avoid water logging (in clayey soil)

Advantages of its uses:- 

• Non toxic ,
• Recycled biological product,
• Eco friendly

Classification of manure:- two types

Compost and vermi compost:-

• The process in which animal and vegetable waters decomposed in pits is called composting.
• Compost is rich in organic matter and nutrients.
• Compost is also prepared by earthworm. This is called vermicompost.
• Earthworms act as a decomposers and thus increases the rate of Compositing.

Green manure:-

• Some green plants uprooted and stuffed under the soil.
• Prior to the sowing of crop seeds , these plants are grown for a specific period of time.
• Then these crops will be mulched by ploughing them into soil.
• Such green plants thus turn into green manure.
• This manure helps in enriching the soil in nitrogen and phosphorus which are macronutrients.

Fertilizers:- commercially produced plant nutrient that results in higher  yields and healthy plants.

Advantages of fertilizers:- 

• Provide nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium to the soil.
• Results in higher yields if given in proper dose 

Disadvantages  of fertilizers:- 

• Cause water pollution, if followed by excessive irrigation .
• Excessive use can soil soil fertility (organic matter and micro organisms are harmed).

Organic farming :-

• Farming with no /minimum use of chemicals 
• Maximum use of manures 
• Healthy cropping pattern.

Irrigation:- Artificial applications of water to soil to ensure growth of agricultural crops 

Why is irrigation needed?

• Agriculture is largely dependent on rains but there is irregular distribute of rainfall in India.
• So , to ensure that crops get proper water at the right stages during their growing season can increase the expected yield  of any crop. That's where irrigation needed.

How is irrigation done?

• Different types of irrigation methods are used depending on the different water resources.

These includes :-

• - wells
• - canals
• - river- lift system
• - tank.

Wells:- ground water extraction is done.

Water is lifted from wells by pumps for irrigation.

Types:- two types 

- tube wells , Dug wells

• In dug wells , water is collected from water bearing strata.
• In tube well , water is collected from deep strata.

Canals:-

• In this system, water is received from rivers by canals.
• The main camal is divided into branch canals
• Branched canals further distributed to irrigate fields.

River lift systems:- 

• In some areas where canal flow is inadequate , the river lift system is used.
• Water drawn directly from rivers from irrigation in nearby areas.

Tanks:-  

• Artificial water reservoir used for irrigation .
• These are small storage reservoirs.

How to ensure water availablity needed for irrigation:- 

Rainwater harvesting 

• - Accumulation of Rainwater for reuse 
• Watershed management 
• Check dams

Advantages:- 

• Checkdams stop the rainwater from flowing away and also reduce soil erosion.

Cropping patterns:-

• Different cropping pattern can be adopted for better results .
• Mixed cropping ,
• Inter cropping ,
• Crop rotation

Mixed cropping:-

• Growing multiple crops on same piece of land .

Example:- wheat + gram 

Wheat + mustard

Groundnut + sunflower

Advantages :-Insurance against failure of one of the crops.

Intercropping :-

• Growing multiple crops on same field in a specific pattern.
• Crops to be chosen so that their nutrient requirements are different.
• In this, a few rows of one crop alternate with a few rows of a second crop.

Example - Soyabeans + maize.

Millet + cowpea 

Advantage:- Maximum utilisation of the nutrients

• Prevents pests and diseases from spreading to all the plants belonging to one crop.

Crop rotation:- 

• Growing different crops on a piece of land in a pre- planned succession.
• Availability of moisture and irrigation facilities decide the choice of the crop to be cultivated after one harvest
• If one rotation is done properly then two three crops can be grown in a year with good harvest.

Crop protection management:-

Why do we need crop protection management?

To protect the crop from weeds, insects and diseases.

Weeds:- unwanted plants in a cultivated field.

• Compete for nutrients space , water and light, therefore adversely affect crop growth.
• Example:- Xanthium , Parthenium.

Insects:- insects can affect the crop health by sticking cell sap, cut root /stem/leaf and bore into stem /fruits

Diseases:- caused by micro organisms

• Transmitted through various means like air , water or soil 

How to ensure crop protection management?

• Chemicals sprayed on plants to getrid of (weeds and insects) pest.
• However, excessive use can spoil the crop health and cause pollution.

Intercropping and crop rotation:-

• Prevents spreading of pests and diseases

Summer ploughing:-

• Fields are ploughed deep to kill weeds and insects.

Storage of grains:- 

• Storage losses in agricultural  produce can be very high

Factors responsible for such losses are 

• Biotic factors:- insects, rodebts, fungi, mites and bacteria
• Abiotic factors:- Inadequate moisture and temperature in the place of storage.

Results:- Loss in weigh, quality, germination ability and discoloration of produce.

• All leads to poor marketability

How to control these factors?

- By proper treatment and systematus management of warehouses.

Preventions and control measures used before grain storage are:-

• Cleaning of produce
• Drying of produce (first in sunlight and them in shade)
• Use of chemical to kill pest

Animal husbandry:- 

• It is the scientific management of animal livestock .
• It includes feeding , breeding and disease control

Animal based farming includes cattle farming, paultry farming, fish farming, bee kekeep.

Cattle farming:-

• Purpose of cattle farming is to get milk and help in agriculture.

Classification :- two types

• Dairy animals (mulch animals), Drought animals.
• Dairy animals are milk producing female animals.
• Drought animals are ones used for farm labour .

Feeding :- the food requirements of dairy animals are of two types:-

(a) maintenance requirement:-needed for healthy survival of the animal

(b) Milk producing lactation period. 

Lactation period:- period during which animal produces milk

Animal feeding includes:-

• Roughage (fibres), concentrates (low fibres and high protein and other nutrients)

Breeding:- 

• Cross breeding of animals to get the desired quality.
• Example:- Foreign breeds e.g. Jersey are selected for long lactation period.

• Local breeds e.g Red Sindhi show resistance to diseases. 

Two can crossbreed to get animals with both desired qualities.

Disease control :- 

Causes of diseases:-

• External parasites (cause skin diseases)
• Internal parasites (cause stomach , intestine and liver diseases)
• Bacterial infection
• Viral infection
• These diseases can cause death or reduce milk production

Disease control measures:- 

• Cleanliness and proper hygiene, 

Vaccination

Cleanliness:- clean , dry, covered and we'll ventilated roofed sheds. 

• Regular cleaning of animals to remove dirt and loose hair.

Bee Keeping:-

• Purpose of bee keeping is to get honey and wax .
• It has low investments  give good income.
• Local varieties of bee used for commercial honey production are Apis indica, Apis veranda 
• Italian bee variety Apis mellifera has been brought in to increase yield of honey .
• This variety is used for high honey production.
• For commercial honey production bee farms or apiaries are established.
• The value or quality of honey depends upon pasturage.
• Pasturage means availability of flowers to the bees for nector and pollen collection 

These flowers will determine the taste of the honey.

Poultry farming :- 

• It is undertaken to raise domesticated fowls for egg production and chicken meat.

It's purpose is to get

• - egg production,
• - chicken meat (broilers)

Breeding :- 

• Cross breeding is done to get desired improved qualities.
• Example:- Aseel X Leghorn

Reasons for cross breeding is to get:-

• Number and quality of chicks ,
• Dwarf of broiler parent for commercial production,
• Summer adaptation capacity / tolerance to high temperature
• Low maintenance requirements,
• Low body weight, hence reduced feed cost.

Broilers:-

• Provided with vitamin rich food
• Ensure better growth
• Avoid mortality
• Sent to markets for meat purposes.

Egg production:-

• Proper hygiene to be maintained in housing and poultry feed.
• Disease and pest control measures to be adapted.

Feeding:- 

• Broilers:- protein rich food, sufficient fat
• Poultry birds :- rich in vitamins A and K

Disease control:-

Causes of diseases:-

• Nutritional deficiencies
• Microbes like bacteria, virus fungi 
• Parasites

Disease control measures:-

• Cleanliness and proper hygiene,
• Use of appropriate disinfectants,
• Vaccination

Fish production:- 

• Fish is a protein rich diet

Two ways to obtain fish:-

Capture fishery:- 

• Fish from natural resources like pond, river sea are caught.

Culture fishery:-

• Commercially raising fish in tank/ enclosures

On the basis of water sources, types of fisheries:- 

Two types:- marine fisheries, inland fisheries

Marine fisheries:- 

• Fishes found in oceans/sea water
• Popular marine fishes are:- 
• - pomphret,
• - Mackerel,
• - Tuna,
• - Bhetki,
• - Prawns,
• - Oysters,
• - Bombay duck

How can we obtain Marine fishes?

Capture fishing:-

• Using fishing nets from fishing boats

Culture fishing:-

• Commercially raising marine fishes in enclosed portion of ocean/tanks/ enclosures.
• Also called mariculture.

Inland fisheries:-

• Fresh water resources like canals ,ponds, reservoire and rivers.
• Brackish water (fresh + sea water) resources like estuaries and lagoons.

Freshwater fishes are:-

Catla, silver carp, Rohu, Grass carp, Mrigal

How do we obtain freshwater fishes?

Capture fishing:- yield is not good

Culture fishing :- 

• Termed as aquaculture.
• Few fish species are used in a single fish pond, selected such that they have different food habits.

Thankyou :-)

Grade 11 biology notes

 Chapter 1

Biodiversity 

• Variety of life forms existing on Earth
• Maintains the ecological balance on earth
• Preventing species extinction is one way to preserve biodiversity

Characteristics of life:-

1. All living organisms grow:-

Growth is from inside the living organisms

2. Reproduction:-

Process by which living organisms produce new organisms similar to themselves.

Modes of reproduction:-

Asexual and sexual

It is not mendatory that all living organisms reproduces, however it is known that no non-living organism can reproduce.

3. Metabolism:-

Set of life sustaining chemical reactions taking place inside the body of a living organism.

Metabolism is a defining feature of all living organisms without exception, isolated metabolic reactions on vitro are not living things but living reactions.

4. Cellular organisation of the body

All living organisms are made up of cells.

5. Consciousness:-

Ability to sense the surroundings and response to them.

Thus living organisms are self replicating and response to them.

self regulating interactive system capable of responding to external stimuli.

Nomenclature and identification:-

Nomenclature:- Process of naming living organisms such that a particular organism is known by the same name all over the world.

Identification:- 

Describing an organism correctly so that the organism can be named.

Nomenclature is possible only when identification is done.

Binomial Nomenclature:-

System of providing name with two components to a living organism.

This naming system was given by Carolus Linnaeus

Two components:-

Generic name and specific epithet.

Example :-

Mangifera indica (mango)

Solanum tuberosum (potato)

Panthers leo (the lion)

Musco domestica ( the house fly)

Homo sapiens (the humans)

Triticum aestivum (wheat)

Panthera tigris (the tiger)

Panthera pardus (the leopard)

Universal rules of Nomenclature:-

• Generally in Latin or Latinised
• Written in italics /underline.
• The first word represents genus while the second one denotes the specific epithet
• Genus starts with a capital letter, while species with a small letter.

Is it possible to give binomial name to all living organisms?

No it's not possible to study each and every living organism.

Solution will be classification

Classification of living organisms:-

Process of  grouping  things into categories based on some easily observable characters.

Characteristics:- Features/ quality belonging to particular organism.

Why do we need classification? 

It is not possible to study about each existing living organism in detail.

Classifying organisms into groups make it easier to know about different life forms.

Classification help us to understand the evolution of all life forms to a large extent.

Scientific naming of organisms is based on classification.

What should be the basic of classification?

The more basic characteristics should be considered for classification.

Taxa :- scientific term for categories - into which organisms are grouped.

Taxa can indicate categories ta very different levels

Taxanomy

Classification of living organisms into different taxa based on characteristics.

Systematics:- 

Branch of science which deal with systematic arrangement of organisms and relationship among them.

Taxanomic hierarchy:-

A part of overall taxanomic arrangement

Taxanomic categories together constitute taxanomic hierarchy.

Taxon (Taxa):-

Each taxanomic category represents a unit of classification termed as rank/taxa.

Group > category> rank/taxon.

Hierarchy classification:-

The more similarities , the more closely they are related.

Species :- 

Basic unit of classification of organisms.

Group of closely resembling organisms which are capable of reproducing each other and produce offspring.

Example:- humans belong to species - sapiens

Mango belong to species - indica

Genus:- 

Group of closely related species.

Species of one genus are more closely related to each other than to species in any other genus.

Example:

1 potato (Solanum tuberosum) and bringal (Solanum melongata) both belong to same genus I.e. Solanum.

2. Lion (Panthera leo) , Tiger (Panthera tigris) and leopard (Panthera pardus) all belong to same genus.ie. Panthera.

Family - 

Group of related genera with still less number of similarities as compared to genus and species.

Genus in one family are more closely related to each other than  to genus in any other family.

Example:- 

Solanum, Petunia, Datura are three genus and belong to same family "solanaceae".

Panthera and Felia (cat) belongs to same family " Falidae"

Order:-

Group of related families which have few similar characters.

Families in one order are more closely related to each other that family in any other order.

Example:- 

Convolvulaceae and solanaceae are two families belonging to same order I.e. polymoniales.

Felidae and canidae are two families belonging to same order I.e. carnivora.

Class :-

Group of related orders which have few similar characters.

Orders in one class are more closely related to each other than to orders in any other class.

Example:- Primata and Carnivora are two orders belonging to same class Mammalia.

Phylum:- 

Groups of related classes of animals with some common features like 

Presence of notochord

Dorsal , hollow neural system.

Example:- mammals along with fishes , reptiles, birds, amphibians belong to same phylum I.e chordata.

Division:- 

Group of related classes of plants with some common features.

Example:- Dicotyledonae and monocotyledonae are two classes of plants belong to same division I.e. angiosperms.

Kingdom:-

Highest category of classification.

earlier there was two kingdom

Plantae- includes all plants from various division.

Animalia- includes all animals fro. Various phyla.

Taxanomical Aids:-

Collection of specimens of plants and animal species is essential and is the prime source of taxanomic studies.

Procedures and techniques to store and preserve the information as well as specimen is called taxanomical aids.

Some taxanomical aids:-

• Harbarium
• Museums
• Botanical garden
• Zoological park
• Key

Harbarium:- store house of collecting specimens that are dried , pressed and preserved on sheets.

Botanical garden:- Area where collection of living plants for references is taken place.

Museum:- collection of preserved plants and animal specimens for study and reference.

Zoological park:-

Area where wild animals are kept in protected environment under human care.

Key:- 

Taxanomical aid used for identification of plants and animals based on similarities and dissimilarities.

Based on contrasting characters

• Pair of contrasting characters - couplet.
• Each statement in a key is called lead.
• Separate keys are required for each taxon.

Flora:- 

• Contain account of habitat and distribution of plants of a given area.

Monographs:- contain information on any one taxon

Manuals:- 

• Useful in providing information for identification of names of species found in an area.

Catalogues:- 

• Useful in providing information of flora and fona of zoo

Thankyou....

More to know:- 

Keys to identification of plants

Identification is the process of determination of exact position of an unknown specimen in the set plan of classification.

 It also leads with the nomenclature of that specimen. 

Plant identification is carried out with the help of duly identified herbaria, botanical gardens, taxonomic literatures, identification keys and a variety of other ways 

A Herbarium:- 

A Herbarium is a collection of well dried, pressed and properly preserved plants which are correctly identified, labelled and systematically arranged according to an approved system of classification.

The plants are mounted on a sheet of paper and the plants which are not suitable for pressing and mounting like succulents, fossil seeds, etc. Are either preserved in FAA (Formaldehyde acetic acid) or dried and stored in large containers

 These preservations form a  part of permanent record.

Herbaria are available for reference in taxonomical, comparative and morphological studies.

 The unknown specimens are compared with the herbarium specimens and identified by the subject expert.

History :

 Caesalpino was the first to preserve the plant materials studied by him and soon after this, importance of herbaria was realized. 

With the progress in taxonomic field, simple drawings, photographs and written descriptions proved insufficient to provide morphological and development details about the plants, this making the herbarium specimens indispensable. Inspite of identification, herbaria serve many other purposes.

1. They provide scientific information on the plants to students or layman by exhibition, trainings etc.

2. They serve as a reference material for modern taxonomical research.

3. Herbaria are national plant wealth repositories.

Some important Herbaria are listed below:

National Herbaria :

1. Central national Herbaria, Kolkata

2. Herbaria of Forest Research Institute (FRI) Dehradun

3. Madras Herbarium, Coimbatore

4. Harbarium of national botanical research institute (NBRI) , Lucknow.

Harbaria of other Countries:

1. Royal Botanical Garden, Herbarium, Kew, Britain

2. Herbarium Nationale de Historie Laboratories de Phanerogamie, Paris, France.

3.British Museum of National history, London ,Britain.

4. Herbaria of Department of systematics and plant Geography of BIASL, Russia.

B.botanical gardens:-

A botanical garden is a place where living plants are grown, and maintained to keep the record of local and regional flora for biosystematic and research studies. 

Botanical garden are of multiple significance with special reference to the comparative study of plants assited by Herbaria.

 Thus botanical gardens provide materials for taxanomic studies, categorization, nomenclature and other investigations.

 They also serve as acclamatization centres for various economic plants used for horticulture and agriculture etc.

History: History of botanical gardens is very old. In ancient times, plants were grown for the purpose of food and medicines.

 The Romans , the Chinese and the Persians were very fond of gathering and growing plants for various purposes.

 The first and the oldest botanical gardens were established in Pisa and Padua parts of the world.

 Some important ones are listed below.

1. Royal Botanical Garden ,Kew, England,

2. Oxford Botanical Garden, England.

3. Royal Botanical Garden, Edinburg, Scottland

Botanical garden of India

1. Indian Botanical Garden, Kolkata

2. Iloyd Botanical Garden, Darjeeling

3. National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow.

C. Taxonomic literature

Taxonomy has one of the oldest and most voluminous literature used by the scientists for identification of an unknown plant, solution of a nomenclature problem, or for a detailed taxonomic study of plants. 

The ancient literature was in Latin which is now available in English, Russian, France, Spanish and German.

Following are some of the most important and valuable sources of taxonomic literatures.

1. Indexes:- These are the catalogues prepared to depict the synopsis or abstracts of work done in the subject.

The publications may include the list of plants with their botanical name or a brief summary of the paper.

 New researches are regularly added in them. Some important ones are:

i. Grey Herbaria Index (1896) on vascular plants.

ii. Catalogue of the library of Royal Botanical Gardens London (1919).

iiii. Index Kewensis Plantarum Phanerograma(1893) includes generic and botanical names of the seed plants

iv. A dictionary of flowering plants in India. CSIR ,New Delhi.

V. The standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture (1939) by Bailey, L.H.

2. Floras and Manuals :

 Floras are description of plants from a specified geographical regions.

 The area may be a country or may be as small as a small mountain.

 Like wise, the type of plants may also be restricted e.g., vascular plants, flowering plants or non-vascular plants etc, Flora may include identification keys.

 some of the important floras are :-

(i) The Flora of British India By Sir J.D. Hooker

 (ii) Genera Plantarum by Bentham and Hooker 

(iii) Flora of Delhi by J.K. Maheshwari (1963) (iv) India Forest Records, FRI, Dehradun

 (v) The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay by Cook, T (1901-08)

Manuals contain more exhaustive study on each taxon i.e. description, ecological data, identification keys, glossary of technical terms.

3. Monographs and Journals :

 Monograph is a basic literature of taxanomy.

 A monograph is a comprehensive study of a particular taxonomic group (genus or family) as gathered from all available ‘ sources throughout the world. 

This information is reviewed, revaluated, analyzed and finally incorporated  in the manuals. 

 A few are listed below :

 Indian trees by Brandis, D. London

 some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs by Bor and Raizada (1954)

Flowering plants of India, Nepal and Bhutan by Nailhani. 

 JOURNAL is a  Published literature by a society, institute or university containing the latest advances in specific fields

A few are listed below:

(i) Indian forester by FRI Dehradun

(ii) Records of Botanical survey of India by B.S.I. Calcutta

(iii) Bulletin of Botanical survey of India by B.S.I., Calcutta

Dictionaries and Glossaries:-

A botanical dictionary may list and describe all the known genera of a plant group. A glossary is an alphabetical list of botanical terms with their interpretations. 

(I) the wealth of India- a dictionary of Raw materials and Industrial Products by CSIR.

(ii) a glossary of Botanical Terms with their derivation and acent, London.

 5.Taxonomic keys: these are described here in details.

TAXONOMIC KEYs_

Taxonomic keys are artificial analytical arrangements useful in identifying an unknown plant. 

It is a more convenient method to identify a specimen than to shuffle through a large number of specimens in a herbarium untill a match is found.

 Keys are prepared on the basis of the process of elimination by using easily detactable and reliable diagnostic characters.

 So, the unknown plant to be identfied must be studied in details and all its diagnostic characters must be noted and listed in a proper sequence

. Keys provide preliminary identification which must be confirmed  by using some athentic literature.

Two types of keys are used now a days : Single acess or sequential keys and  multiaccess or multientry keys.

A. SINGLE ACCESS OR SEQUENTIAL KEYS

 it is the most conventional and most acceptable type of keys and are also known as dichotomous key or diagnostic keys.

 It consists of several Steps in a sequence and each step has a pair of contrasting choices or character.

 Each pair of choice is called a couplet and each statement ofa couplet is called a lead at each step, one lead of a couplet will be accepted and the other rejected and with this one or more taxa are eliminated.

 The first contrasting characters in each couplet are usually the best contrasting characters and are known as primary key characters and the others that follow the lead are called secondary key characters and the others that follow the lead are called secondary key characters.

 There are two major types of dichotomous keys 

Yoked or indented Keys

Bracketed or parallel keys.

These are explained by an example in which keys are prepared by using 5- couplets for the identification of six genera of family Ranunculaceae.

Yoked or Indented Sequential Keys : 

 This type of key is usually used in floras and manuals.

 This is characterised by the placement of two lead of a couplet at a fixed distance from the margin.

 The initial couplet is close to the margin and the subsequent one gradually move away from the margin. It is explained by the following example :

 1. Fruit an achene

 2. Calyx differentiated from Corolla

      3. Petals with nectary at the base.............. Ranunculus 

3. Petals   without   nectary at the base........... Adonis

 2. Calyx not differentiated from Corolla 

4. Plants WOOdY....

4.plants herbaceous.............. Anemone

. 1. Fruit a follicle 

5. Spur present...... ....Delphinium

5. Spur absent.......... Caltha

6) Bracketed or Parallel Sequential Keys :

 It is characterized by the placement of two leads of each couplet always together having the same distance from the margin.

 - Fruit an achene (2) 

 Fruit follicle’ (5)

 2. Calyx differentiated from

carolla (3)  2. Calyx not differentiated from corolla(4)

3. Petals with

nectary at the base .............. Ranunculus

 3. Petals without nectary at the base .......... Adonis. ,

4. Plants woody.......clematis

4. Plants herbaceous......Anemone

5. Spur present.... Delphinium

5. Spur absent..... Caltha

Some important rules for the construction of sequential keys

1. Keys should be strictly dichotomous.

 2. Contrasting characters should be used in two leads

3. To avoid confusion, initial letter of each lead in a couplet should be identical 

4 Two successive couplets should not begin with same word.

5. Macroscopic and morphological characters should be used in keys.

MultiACCESS OR MULTIENTRY KEYS

These are also known as punched cards keys.

 These keys are prepared by making use of specific cards which ' are punched at a definite place for a particular taxon and for a particular character.

 Various cards are then piled up and common perforations (punchings) shows the taxon to which the new specimen belong. Depending upon the kinds of punching in the cards, keys are of two types :

 (a) Body Punched Cards Keys :For the preparation of such keys, at first attributes are selected for the identification of all taxa. 

Then equal number of cards are taken and one attribute at the top of one card is written. 

All the taxa (for which key is prepared) should be printed in a vertical row on each card as shown in Fig. 4.1

 Now take one card and to indicate the presence of the attribute (character) printed at the top, punch the card against the taxa.

 Donot punch the taxa in which that attribute is absent e.g., For bisexual character punch all the six taxa but donot punch  against Zea mays as it is not herbaceous, likewise punch the second card over the first and repeat this process untill only one hole remains visible 

 The name of the plant is now identified, i.e. against which the hole is visible

Edge Punched Cards : 

In the preparation of edge punch cards, taxa is written at the top and attributes are listed in vertical rows on each card and hence card is punched against the attribute.

 Finally the punched attributes shown by the particular taxa are cut and connected with edge and thus unknown plant is identified.

chapter 2 

Biological classification

Classification of living organisms

Classifying living organisms into groups based on certain set of characteristics.

Characteristics:-

Features /quanlity belonging to a particular organism

Aristotle 's attempt to classify living organisms:-

Aristotle classified animals based on habitats:-

• Land (terrestrial)
• Water (aquatic)
• Air(aerial)

Plants on based of size:-

• Herb 
• Shrubs
• Trees

2-kingdom classification:-

Carl Linnaeus introduced a two kingdom classification

• Plantae
• Animalia

Basis of two kingdom classification

Plantae:-

• Immobile
• Mostly prepare their own food.

Animalia:-

• Mobile (have some means of classification)
• Intake food.

Limitations of two kingdom classification:-

• No distinction between
• Eukaryotes and prokaryotes
• Unicellular and multicellular
• Photosynthetic and non photosynthetic
• Many organisms did not belong to any of the two kingdoms bacteria, fungi, viruses.

Whittaker's classification of life forms:- 

• Robert Whittaker's basis of classification
• Cell structure
• Body organisation
• Mode and source of nutrition.
• All living organisms were broadly classified into 5 groups as kingdom.

5- Kingdom classification:-

Monera, Protists, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia.

Monera - Characteristics

• Oldest life forms
• Prokaryotes
• - No defined cell organelle or nucleus.
• Unicellular
• - made up of one cell.

Some are autotrophic, while some are heterotrophic.

Autotrophic :-

•  prepare their own food
• Photosynthetic autotrophs

Chemosynthetic autotrophs

Heterotrophic - depend on other for their food.

Monera:- Bacteria

• Appear in variety of shapes and sizes
• Inhibits soil, water, radioactive waste and deep portion of earth's crust, deep oceans, hot springs, snow desert.
• Live in plant/animal bodies.
• Symbiosis:- A relationship of mutual benefit between two organisms.

Bacteria: types:-

4 types based on shapes-

• Coccus - spherical
• Bacillus - cylindrical
• Vibrium - comma shaped
• Spirillium - spiral

Some bacteria:-

Archaebacteria , Eubacteria, Mycoplasmas, Cyanobacteria, E coli

Archaebacteria:-

• Oldest bacteria
• Rigid cell wall
• Habitat:-
• Extreme habitat
• - high salt concentration
• - high temperature
• -oxygen free marshy areas

Types:-

•  high salt concentration - Halophiles
• - high temperature - Thermophiles
• -oxygen free marshy areas - Methanogens
• Ex:- Methanobacteria, Methanococcus, Methanothermis.

Nutrition:-

•  some are heterotrophs, many as chemoautotrophs.

Eubacteria:-

• True bacteria 
• Rigid cell wall
• Flagellum is present.

Habitat:- 

• Can be found anywhere including human beings.
• Many occur in moist habitat.

Nutrition:- 

Photosynthetic autotrophs:-

• Prepare their own food in presence of sunlight with chlorophyll.
• Cyanobacteria/ Blue green algae.

Chemosynthetic autotrophs:-

•  prepare their own food with the help of chemicals( oxidizing nitrates,nitrites, ammonia)
• Help in recycling nutrients.

Heterotrophs:-

• Saprophytes:- 
• Decomposers
• Feed on dead and decaying organisms / matter

Parasite:- 

Live either in or on the host body and thrives nutrients from organism.

Cyanobacteria:-

• Blue green algae
• Cyano - Blue and hence termed as cyanobacteria.
• Perform photosynthesis.
• Responsible for enriching atmosphere with oxygen.
• Considered ancestors of all life forms on earth.

Heterotrophic Eubacteria:-

• Decomposers:- 
• Bacillus, streptomyces, pseudomonas
• Curd from milk
• Antibiotics
• Nitrogen fixation
• - Rhizobium 

Pathogens:-

• Disease causing bacteria
• Typhoid:- Salmonella. typhi
• Cholera :- Vibrio cholerae
• Tetanus:- Clostridium tetani
• Tuberculosis (TB) :- Mycobacterium tuberculosis
• Syphilis:- Trepanema  pallium

E- coli :- 

• Rod shaped bacteria.
• Found in lower intestine of worm - blooded organisms
• Most E- coli strains are harmless, but some can cause serious food poisoning in humans.

Mycoplasm:-

• Parasitic bacteria
• No cell wall
• Smallest living cells.

Habitat:- Human respiratory/urinogenital tract and blood smear

Diseases:- 

• FIA (Feline infection Anemia)
• Mycoplasma pneumoniae :- Pneumonia

Monera Reproduction:- 

Bacteria can reproduce by two modes-

Asexual mode 

- Fission  , -spore formation

Sexual mode

• DNA transfer

Overall significance:-

• Important decomposers
• Produce food and medicine
• Recycle nutrients
• Fertilize fields

Protista:- characteristics

• Eukaryotes
• Specific membrane bound cell organelles and distinct nuclei.
• Mostly unicellular
• Made up of one cell.
• Some are autotrophic while others are heterotrophic

Autotrophic - prepare their own food.

Heterotrophic:- Depend on others for their food.

• Prefer moist and aquatic habitat.
• Reproduce both sexually and asexually.

Protists:- link with other kingdom

Plant-like protists

• Algae

Animal like protists

• Protozoa

Fungus like protists

• Slime mould and water moulds.

Protists:- 

Groups under protists:-

• Chrysophytes,
• Dianoflagellates,
• Euglenoids,
• Slime mould and protozoans

Chrysophytes:-

• Diatoms and  golden algae.
• Plant like protists
• Structure:- contain chlorophyll, carotene and xenthophylls
• Rigid cell wall made up of pectin/cellulose/silica 

Habitat:- 

• Aquatic
• Can be freshwater/marine
• Float passively in water.

Nutrition:-

•  mostly photosynthetic
• Diatoms main producers of food in oceans.
• Store food as oil
• Few are heterotrophic eating small bacteria

Reproduction:-

• Mostly asexual

Diatomaceous earth:-

•  Accumulation of cell wall deposits of diatoms over several years form diatomaceous earth

Uses:-

•  filteration of oils and syrups
• Polishing
• Tooth pastes
• Facial scrubs
• Pest control
• Grain storage  in agriculture

2. Dianoflagellates:-

• Protista with flagella (mostly 2) 
• Longitudinal flagella
• Transverse flagella
• Neither plants nor animal like protista

Structure:- 

• Contain chlorophyll /carotene/several group of xanthophylls.
• Complex cell covering , cortex is present.
•  Light sensitive organelle, eye spot is found in some of them.
• Example:- Erythropsidium :- smallest known eye.

Habitat:- 

• aquatic
• Can be fresh water/marine.

Nutrition:- 

• Photosynthetic + ingestion of prey
• Oodinium , Noctiluca

Reproduction:- 

• mostly asexual by means of fusion.
• Sexual mode seen only in some of them

Red tide:-

• Algal bloom
• The coloration of sea into red due to rapid multiplication of red dinoflagellates, Gonyaulase is termed as red tide.
• Chemicals released during this process is extremely harmful for survival of other aquatic life.

Euglenoids:- 

• Share characteristics of both plants and animals.

Structure:- 

• No cell wall
• Flexible body due to protein rich layer called pellicle.
• 2 flagella present

• Chlorophyll is present (but acquired)
• Habitat:- 
• Aquatic 
• Mostly in stagnant fresh water

Nutrition:-

• Photosynthetic in presence of light.
• Heterotrophic in absence of light

Reproduction :- 

• Mostly asexual

Slime moulds:- 

• Saprophytic protists
• Fungus like Protists

Structure:- 

• Made up of individual cells that forms an aggregate mass.
• Cell walls are retained even in the mass.

Habitat:-

• Soil , lawn, forest floors.
• Prefer moist decaying habitats.
• Extreme resistant, can survive under adverse conditions

Nutrition:- 

• Heterotrophic (saprophytes)
• Feed on bacteria, yeast and fungi
• Amoeba like food ingestion.

Reproduction:-

•  mostly asexual using spores.

Protozoa:- 

• Animal like protists
• No cell wall

Habitat:- aquatic and moist habitat

Nutrition:-

•  heterotrophic
• Can be parasitic or predators.
• Holozoic /animal like nutrition.

Reproduction:- 

• Both asexually and sexually
• Protozoans :- groups
• Amoeboid protozoans
• Flagellated Protozoans
• Ciliated protozoans
• Sporozoans

Amoeboid Protozoans:-

• Resemble Amoeba in the presence of pseudopodia
• Some are predators with Amoeba like ingestion of prey.
• Pseudopodia:- 
• False feet 
• Temporary extension of cytoplasm.
• Helps in locomotion and feedin
• Some are parasites.
• Entamoeba histolytica causes Amebiasis.

Flagellated Protozoans:-

•  Protozoans with flagella 
• Can be free living or parasitic
• Trypanosoma gambiense - sleeping sickness

Ciliated protozoans:- protozoan with cilia

Cilia:-

•  hair like structure arising from surface of a cell
• Multiple short cilia exist that help in locomotion and feeding
• Example:- Paramecium

Sporozoans:- 

• Non motile protozoan
• Mostly parasitic
• Reproduce by spore formation
• Example:- Plasmodium causing malaria

Importance of Protists:-

• Source of food for many life forms
• Medical research
• Valuable to industry.

Fungi :- Characteristics

• Eukaryotes:- 
• Specific membrane bound cell organelles and distinct nucleus
• Multicellular:-
• Made of multiple cells
• Exception:- yeast
• Heterotrophic:- 
• Depend on other for their food
• Prefer moist and warm places to grow
• Found in air, water , soil , on animals and on plants.
• Immobile
• Cell wall present

Fungi structure:- 

• Most fungi grow as hyphae.
• Hyphae:- long slender thread like structure
• Interconnected network of hyphae form mycelium
• Cell wall made up of chitin and polysaccharides.

Fungi :-nutrition

• Heterotrophic
• Some are saprophytes
• - feed on. Dead plants and decomposed matter
• Some can be parasites
• Depend on living plants / animals
• Can cause diseases
• Some exist in symbiotic relationship with other organisms.

Symbiosis:- an association between two or more species where one or both mutually benefitted.

Various symbiotic relationship:-

Obligate relationship :-

• Organisms completely depend on each other for survival.
• Example:- insects and flowers; lichen ( fungi + blue green algae)

Facultative relationship:- 

• Organisms are not dependent on each other for survival.
• Example:- Buffalo and crow.

 Ectosymbiosis:-

• One organisms live on  the other.
• Example:- lice in hair.

Endosymbiosis:- 

• One organism live inside the other.
• Example:- Bacteria in intestine . 

Lichen:- 

• Symbiotic relationship between fungi and blue green alga
• Algae:- performs photosynthetic, provides nutrients to fungi
• Fungi - protects algae and give shelter.

Fungi :- classification

Based on the reproductive structures and mode of spore formation, divided into four groups

• phycomycetes
• Ascomycetes
• Basidiomycetes
• Deuteromycetes.

1. Phycomycetes:- 

Structure :- 

• Mycelium is aseptate.
• Mycelium is coenocytic
• Septate:- Mycelium is divided into smaller uninucleate or multinucleate cells by cross walls.
• Aseptate:-No cross walls/ septum in mycelium

Reproduction:- 

Asexual mode:- 

• Motile zoospores
• Non motile aplanospores
• Produced endogenously in sporangium

Sexual mode:- 

• Fusion of similar gametes (isogamy)
• Fusion of dissimilar gametes (anisogamy)
• Fusion produce zygospores

Phycomycetes example:- 

• Rhizobium (bread mould)
• Mucor 
• Albugo candida (mustard fungi)

Ascomycetes:-

• Sac fungi 
• Structure:-
• Mycelium is septate
• Mycelium is branched

Reproduction:- 

• Asexual mode:-

Asexual spore- conidia

• Conidia are produced  exogenously by conidiophores

Sexual mode:- 

Sexual spores :- Ascospores

• Ascospores are produced endogenously in asci present in fruiting bodies, ascocarps.
• Example:- yeast , Aspergillus, Penicillium, Neurospores.

Basidiomycetes:- 

• Club fungi
• Inhibit soil , tree log and plants
• Structure:- mycelium is septate
• Mycelium is branched

Reproduction:- 

Asexual mode:-

• No asexual spore formed.
• Fragmentation is common

Sexual mode:-

Sexual spores:- Basidiospores

• Basidiospores are produced endogenously on Basidium is fruiting bodies - Basidiocarps
• Example:- Agaricus ( Mushroom) ,
• Puccini's (rust fungus)
• Puff balls ,
• Bracket fungi

Deuteromycetes:-

• Imperfect fungi
• Mostly decomposers, some are parasites

Structure:- Mycelium is septate and branched.

Reproduction:- 

Asexual mode:- Asexual spores - conidia

Sexual mode:- No sexual mode I'd reproduction

Example:- Trichoderma, Alternaria, Colletotrichum falcatum (red rot of sugarcane)

 Some common fungi:-

Yeast :- unicellular through some turn multicellular by formation of hyphae.

• Do not need sunlight for growth
• Organic compounds are utilized for energy.
• Used in preparation of bread, beer, wine
• Found in soil, insects, fruits, skin, human toe skin.

Mushroom :-

• Spore bearing fruiting body
• Produced above ground / soil
• Consists of stem cap and spores on  underside of cap

Moulds:- 

• Multicellular
• Growth in forms of hyphae
• Several drugs are obtained from moulds
• Example:- Antibiotics penicillin

Importance of fungi:-

• Help in decomposition of organic wastes.
• Valuable in plastic industry
• Valuable in obtaining drugs like penicillin.
• Play a role in baking industries.

Fungi - Reproduction

Reproduction by spores:-

• Small particles ejected from reproductive organs which are capable of giving rise to new organisms
• Reproduction by mycelial fragmentation:- 
• Mycelium seperates into pieces which inturn forms a new one.

By budding:-

• New organism develops and remains attached to parent organism, once grown get detached 

Sexual reproduction:-

• Sexual reproduction often occurs in response to adverse environment conditions
• No male / female fungi
• Two mating types :-( + and -)

Homothallic :- when two mating types are present on same mycelium

Heterothallic:- when two compatible mating totes are present on different mycelium.

Haploid:- cell with a single complete set of chromosome.

Diploid:- cell with two complete sets of chromosomes

Fungi :- sexual cycle :

• Three step process.
• Plasmogamy :- 
• Cytoplasm marriage 
• Cytoplasm of two haploid cells fused 

Two haploid nuclei in one cell - dukaryotic

Karyogamy:- 

• Nucleus marriage
•  two haploid nuclei fuse

1 diploid zygote formed - process called fertilization

Meiosis :- 4 haploid spores produce. 

2 with "+" mating type

2 with "-" mating type.

Are viruses living or non living?

Non living :-

• No components of cell
• No cell membrane
• Inert 
• No metabolism
• No reproduction on its own

Living:&

• Inert only outside a living
• Obligate parasites 
• Parasite that cannot its life cycle without exploiting a suitable host.

Virus :- structure 

• Virus is nucleoprotein
• Virus contain
• - protein 
• - genetic material in the form of RNA/DNA
• Protein coat :-  capsid ensures protection of nucleic acids.
• Capsid contains helical arrangement of capsomeres.

Plant virus :- single strand of RNA

Animal virus:- Double strand of RNA /DNA

Bacteriophage:- Double strand of DNA

Viral disease:- small pox , influenza, mumps, measles, AIDS, dwarfing in plants, mosaic formation in plants

Viroids:- "viroid means virus like.

• Smaller than virus 
• Infectious agents like virus
• Composed of RNA
• NO protein coat.

Differenxe between virus and viroids:-

Virus :- 

• Protein coat , capsid present
• Contain single /double stranded RNA/DNA
• smaller than bacteria

Viroids:- 

• No protein coat
• Contain free RNA
• even smaller than virus.

Chapter 3 Plant kingdom

Plantae - characteristics

1. Eukaryotes:-

• Specific membrane bound cell organelles and distinct nucleus

2. Multicellular:-

• Made up of multiple cells

3. Autotrophic

• Prepare their own food

4. Immobile

5. Can be aquatic or land plants

6. Cell wall present

Classification system:- 

Artificial

Natural

Phylogenetic

Artificial classification system:-

• Basis of classification:-
• External morphological characters

Advantages:- 

• Closely related species could be classified

Limitations:-

•  equal weightage to vegetative and sexual characteristics.

Natural classification system:-

Basis of classification:-

• External as well as internal characters.

Advantages:- 

• Overshadowed limitations of artificial system
• Establishes relationship between organisms.

Limitations:- 

• closely related organisms can differ in important properties.

Phylogenetic classification system:-

Basis of classification-

• Evolutionary relationships between organisms
• Similar and dissimilar features of organisms
• Depends on information from cytotaxonomy , chemotaxonomy and numerical taxonomy.

Advantage:-

•  tell about evolutionary history of organisms.

Limitation:- 

• Closely related organisms can differ in important properties.

Sources which help in classification:-

• Numerical taxonomy
• Cytotaxonomy
• Chemotaxonomy

Numerical taxonomy:- 

• Mathematical method of classification based on observable characters.
• Number are assigned to  each character.

Cytotaxonomy:-

• Classification using comparative studies of chromosomes 

Chemotaxonomy:- 

• Classification based on chemical composition of plants.

Bases of sub-classification of plantae:-

• Differentiation of plant body
• Ability to bear seeds
• Type of seeds (naked/covered)

Plantae :- classification

• Thallophyta
• Bryophyta
• Pteridophyta
• Phanerogams
• - Gymnosperms
• -Angiosperms

Thallophyta

• No body differentiation
• Prefer aquatic habitat
• Example:- free algae
• Hidden reproductive system
• Plants with hidden reproductive system are called cryptogammae.

Algae:- characteristics

• Autotrophic
• Habitat:- mostly aquatic (fresh water/ marine)
• Found in moist soil/ wood
• Can be unicellular /colonial/filamentous
• Example:- volvox (colonial)
• Chlamydomonas (unicellular)
• Ulothrix (filamentous)
• Spirogyra (filamentous)
• Ulva (sea lattuce)
• Cladophora (river weed) (branched filamentous)

Algae reproduction:- 

• Asexual reproduction
• Sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction:-

Fragmentation:- parents breaks into multiple pieces on maturity, each of which give rise to a new individual. Example:- Spirogyra.

Multiple fission:-

• Many new individuals are formed.
• Nucleus divide repeatedly .
• Takes place during unfavourable conditions.
• (Cyst formation takes place)
• Example:- chlamydomonas

Spore formation:-

• Production of asexual spores.
• Reproductive parts - zoosporangium
• Asexual spores- zoospores.

Algae :- sexual reproduction

• Fusion of two gametes

Types :-

Isogamous:-

• Both gametes are similar in size. Example:- Spirogyra and chlamydomonas.

Anisogamous:- 

• Gametes are dissimilar in size.
• Example:- some species of chlamydomonas
• Oogamous:: 
• One gamete in large and non motile while other is small and motile. Example:- volvox.

Algae:- significance

• CO2 fixation on earth
• Increase in oxygen level in atmosphere.
• Important in oxygen level in atmosphere.
• Important source of food
• Some are rich source of protein (chloralla, spirullina)
• Preparation of ice creams and jellies 

Photosynthetic pigments:-

Chlorophyll:-

• Colour green 
• Predominant in leaves

Types:- 

• chlorophyll a,b,c
• Carotenoids:-
• Colour range from yellow to red.
• Pre-dominant in flowers and fruits.
• Carotene- pure carbohydrates
• Xanthophyll - carotenoids with oxygen.

Chlorophyceae - characteristics:-

• Green algae

Autotrophic

Habitat:- 

• Primarily freshwater
• Found in soil /tree/bark
• Can be unicellular/colonial/filamentous

Chlorophyceae-structure:-

• Rigid 2 layered cell wall.
• Outer wall - pectin 
• Constituent the matrix in which cellular microfibrils are embedded.
• Inner wall- cellulose
• Main load bearing structure
• Chloroplast seen in different shapes in different species
• Chlorophyll a and b present 
• Pyrenoid present
• Pyrenoids are storage bodies in chloroplasts which store proteins and starch.

Chlorophyceae - life cycle

• Isogamous /anisogamous /oogamous
• Diploid phase - short lived
• Haploid phase - Dominant

Phaeophyceae - characteristics:-

• Brown Algae
• Marine habitat
• Can be branched /filamentous
• Example:-Laminaria , Fucus, Dictyota

Phaeophyceae- structure:- 

• Cell wall made up of cellulose.
• Outer covering of cell wall made of Algin
• Chlorplast seen in different shapes in different species.
• Chlorophyll a , c , carotenoids and xanthophylls present.
• Food is stored in the form of complex carbohydrates like laminaria.

Significant organelles:-

• Plastids 
• Vacuoles
• Nucleus

Plant body:-

• Holdfast
• Stipe 
• Frond

Phaeophyceae:- life cycle

• Involve succession of haploid and diploid phases.

Rhodophyceae- characteristics

• Red Algae

Habitat :- 

aquatic

• - Fresh water/salty water
• - occurs both on surface as well as deep inside water.
• Cell wall made up of cellulose
• - chlorophyll a,d and phycoerythrin present
• Food is store in the form of floridean starch.

Rhodophyceae- life cycle:-

• Similar to brown Algae, except that they do not have flagellated gametes.

Bryophyta:- characteristics -

• Body differentiation exists:-
• Stem like,
• Leaf like structures.
• Plant amphibians
• Mostly found in moist hilly areas 
• Specialized vascular tissues absent.
• Significant role in preventing soil erosion.
• Hidden reproductive structure.
• Plant body is called cryptogammae
• Example:- mosses , hornworts, liverworts

Bryophyta - structure:-

• Body differentiation exist.
• Erect with unicellular/multicellular rhizoids.
• No true roots/stems/leaves.

Bryophyta - reproduction

Asexual reproduction:-

• Fragmentation 
• Spore formation
• Gammae:-
• - propagating structures in thallose liverworts.
• Green multicellular asexual buds.

Sexual reproduction:- 

• Gametophyte
• - produce gametes
• Male gametes - Antherozoids
• Female gametes- egg
• Male sex organs- Antheridium
• Female sex organs- Archegonium.

Bryophytes- significance

• Source of food for other animals.
• Prevent soil erosion
• Rock decomposition
• Packing material

Liverworts - characteristics

• Prefer moist and shady habitat.
• Plant body is thalloid.
• -stem like structure
• - tiny leaf like structure
• Typed :- thallose liverworts
• Leafy liverworts
• Example:-
• Marchantia , Riccia , Porella, Anthoceros, Funaria.

Liverworts - Reproduction

Asexual reproduction:- 

• Fragmentation of thalli
• Gammae formation
• Gammae :-
• Propagating structures in thallose liverworts
• Green multicellular asexual buds.

Sexual reproduction:-

• Fusion of gametes
• Male and female organs can be on same or different thalli
• Haploid gametophyte is dominant phase of life cycle.

Sporophytes:- 

• Diploid stage
• Develop from zygote
• Begins to grow out on top of Archegonium on the female gametophyte plants.
• Consists of three structures
• -Foot :- Anchors to gametophyte
• - seta :- long erect stalk :- transfer water and nutrients from gametophytes
• Capsule:- spores are produced here.

Mosses :- characteristics

• Prefer moist and shady habitat.
• Plant body is simple
• -No seed / flowers 
• - simple leaves cover the thin stems
• -root like structures - Rhizoids.

Mosses- uniqueness:-

• Like liverworts, gametophyte is the predominant stage of the life cycle of a moss 
• Gametophyte consists of two stages.
• Protonema:- 
• Develops from spores
• Green , creeping and branched
• leafy stage:-
• Develop from secondary protonema.
• Upright axis with spirally arranged leaves.
• Mosses :- examples:- 
• Funaria, sphagnum, common hair cup moss

Mosses:- reproduction

Asexual reproduction:-

• Fragmentation:- stem / leaf from the moss accidentally broken off can regenerate to form a new plant.
• Budding :- New individual is formed as an outgrowth of parent.
• Daughter seperates away and parent continue to exist.

Sexual reproduction:- 

• Resemble leafy liverworts
• Male and female sex organ at apex of shoot.
• Sporophytes in mosses is more elaborate than that in liverworts.

Pteridophytes:-

• Body differentiation exists:-
• True roots , true stems , true leaves
• Specialized vascular tissues present.
• Hidden reproductive system
• -Cryptogammae , - reproduce by spores
• Example:- pteris(fern) marsilea, Selaginella, equisetum

 Habitat:-

•  first terriestrial plants
• Found in cool, damp , shadty place and some in sandy soil conditions

Economic importance:- 

• Ornamental plants
• Medicinal purpose
• As soil binders

Pteridophyta- structure

• Main plant body- sporophyte
• True root , true stem, true leaves.
• Sporophytes bear sporangia subtended by leaf like appendages called sporophylls.
• Strobili present in some pteridophytes.
• Come like distinct compact structure formed by sporophyll.

Reproduction:- 

Asexual reproduction :-

• By spores 
• By fragmentation

Sexual reproduction:-

• Sporophyte is main plant body.

Gametophyte:-

• Small, multicellular, mostly photosynthetic thallus.
• Termed as prothallus

Sporophyte:- 

• Multicellular, well differentiated, dominant phase 

Pteridophyte plant types:- 

Homosporous :-

• Sporangia produce similar gametes . Example:- ferns
• Heterospores:-

• Sporangia produce two types of spores
• -megasporea - microspore (example:- Selaginella, salvinia.

Pteridophytes - classification

• Psilopsida 
• Sphenosida
• Lycopsida
• Pteropsida

Phanerogams:-

• Body differentiation exists:-
• Roots, stem, leaves
• Specialized vascular tissues present
• Specialized reproductive tissues present
• Seeds are produced.

Phanerogams classification:-

Basis of classification :-

• Types of seeds produced 
• Classified into two categories:- 
• Gymnosperms, Angiosperms

Gymnosperms:-

• Phanerogams with naked seeds 
• Fruitless plants
• Plants are perennial, evergreen and woody 
• Needle shaped leaves
• Termed as ' soft wood'
• Example :- Pines , Deodar, Cycads, Red wood tree (tallest )

Gymnosperms :- structure:-

• Main plant body - sporophyte
• Stem- branched (Pine)
• Unbranched (cycus)

Leaves -

• Simple /compound
• Well adapted to withstand extreme conditions

Roots :- 

• Generally tap roots
• Coralloid roots
• Mycorrhiza
• Coralloid roots:-
• Short branched irregular roots
• Symbiotic association with cyanobacteria
• Cycas.

Mycorrhiza:- 

• Symbiotic association with fungus
• Example:- pinus

Gymnosperm reproduction:-

Heterosporous:-

• Sporangia produces two types of spores
• - microspore and megaspores
• Sporangia are spirally arranged to form compact structure called strobili/cone
• -male strobili and - female strobili
• Male and female gametophyte donor have an independent free living existence
• Male /female cones can be present on same /different trees.

Economic importance:- 

• Control soil erosion in forest
• Economic uses:- soap , nail polish, perfume ,food, lumber 

Angiosperm:-

• Phanerogams with enclosed seeds
• Bear fruits 
• Flowering plants
• Broad leaves
• Termed as "hard wood"

Uses :-

•  provide us oxygen to breathe
• Primary source of food for animals.

Economic uses:- 

• Lumber , fibers for clothes, medicines

Angiosperms - classification

Basis of classification

• Number of cotyledons inside the enclosed seed.

Cotyledons:-

• Structure or a pre designed plant inside the seed.
• Termed as seed leaves
• Classic into two categories:-
• Dicots and Monocots

Dicots:- 

• Angiosperms with two cotyledons
• Broad leaves
• Vascular bundles in ring
• Floral parts in multiple of 4 and 5
• Example:- rose, lotus, beans

Monocots:-

• Angiosperms with one cotyledons
• Narrow leaves 
• Vascular bundles scattered
• Floral parts in multiple of 3.

Angiosperms - flower structures.

• Stalk :- axis that hold the flowers
• Thalamus :- swollen upper portion of stalk 
• Petals:- coloured parts of a flower.
• Attract insects.
• Sepals:- ensure protection
• Stamens:-
• Male reproductive organs
• Male gametes - pollen grains
• carpels :- 
• Female reproductive organs.
• Female gametes- ovum /egg

Male reproductive structure:-

Female reproductive structure:-

• Stigma:- sticky surface that receive pollen grains during pollination
• Style :- slender part that join stigma to ovary
• Ovary:- basal swollen part of pistil that contain ovules and eggs.

How does sexual reproduction occur in plants?

• Following steps together complete sexual reproduction in plants:-
• Pollination 
• Fertilization
• Seed formation
• Germination

Pollination:-

• Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma 
• - self pollination
• - cross pollination
• This transfer of pollen grains occur with the help of pollinating agents like wind,water, insects, birds etc.

Fertilization:- 

• Unique feature of angiosperms
• Double fertilization
• Fusion of pollen grains and egg
• Zygote is formed
• Fusion of pollen and polar nuclei (sec.nucleus)
• PEN is formed

PEN:- 

• Primary endosperm nucleus
• Triploid
• Develops into endosperm
• Provide nourishment to embryo.

Seed formation:-

• Zygote divide  repeatedly to form embryo
• Ovule develops a thick coat and forms seed.
• Ovary ripen to form fruit

Germination:- 

• Development of seeding from a seed.

Plant life cycle:-

• Haplontic (algae)
• Diplontic (phanerogams)
• Haplo-diplontic(bryophytes and pteridophytes)

Haplontic:-

• Dominant phase - gametophyte
• Sporophytic generation is represented only by zygote.
• Meiosis in zygote results in formation of spores(n) 
• Example:- algae like volvox
• Spirogyra and some species of chlamydomonas

Diplontic :- 

• Dominant phase - sporophyte
• Gametophyte generation  is represented only by gametes. Example:- phanerogams (Gymnosperm and Angiosperms)

Haplo-diplontic :-

• One phase dominant and other intermediate .
• Example :- 
• In bryophytes 
• Dominant phase- gametophyte (n)
• Intermediate - sporophyte (2n)
• In pteridophytes 
• Dominant phase - Sporophyte (2n)
• Intermediate -gametophyte (n)