Class 9 Is matter around us pure?

Topics to be covered:-

• Introduction
• Pure matter
• Impure Matter
• Homogeneous mixture
• Heterogeneous mixture
• Physical and chemical change
• Tyndall effect
• Solution, suspension and colloids
• Types of Solution
• Properties of solution
• Terms related to solution
• Suspension
• Colloids
• Seperation of mixture
• Assignment

#Matter:-

•Anything that occupied some space and have some mass us called matter.

•It may be 

 -solid

 -liquid

 -gas

Types of matter:-

Two types

1. Pure matter

2. Impure substance

*Pure matter:-

It is defined as material which contains only one kind of atoms or molecules.

Types of pure matter:-

Two types

 -Elements

 - Compounds

Elements:-

•Pure substance which are made up of only one kind of atoms are known as elements.

•All atoms in the element are identical.

• Atoms of different elements are different.

#Classification of Elements:-

 -Metals

 - Non-metals

 - Metalloids

• Mercury and bromine are liquid at room temperature.

•Cesium and Gallium are solid at room temperature but change into liquid when temperature increases.

#Properties of Metals:-

• Luster
• Good conductor of heat and electricity
• Malleable i.e. they can be beaten into thin sheets.
• Ductile i.e. they can be drawn into thin wire.
• Sonorous i.e. produce popup sound.
• Generally, silvery grey or golden yellow colour.
• Example:- Gold(Au), silver(Ag), sodium (Na), potassium (K), etc.

#Properties of Non-metal:-

• Do not have luster.
• Bad conductor of heat and electricity.
• Non-malleable
• Non-ductile
• Non-sonorous
• Display variety of colours
• Ex:- Carbon(C), Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O) etc.

#Metalloids:-

•They are those elements which have properties of both metals and non- metals.

•Ex:- Germanium, Boron, Silicon, etc.

2. Compounds:-

•Pure substance which are made up of only one kind of molecules are known as compound.

•Atoms consisting are from two or more different elements.

•The different elements are combined in fixed proportion in a compound.

#Properties of compounds:-

• A compound is a homogeneous substance.
• It has definite composition
• Definite melting point and boiling point.
• Properties of compounds are different from its constituents.
• The constituents of compound cannot be seperated by simple physical process.
• The constitution can be seperated by chemical or electrochemical reactions.

*Impure matter:-

•A mixture is a material which contains two or more different kinds of particles(atoms or molecules) which donot react chemically but are physically mixed together in any proportion.

•Types:- Two

 1. Homogeneous mixture

 2. Heterogeneous mixture

# Homogeneous mixture:-

•  Mixture is said to be homogeneous if all the components of the mixture are uniformly mixed.
• No boundaries of seperation between them.
• Ex:- Salt in water etc.

#Heterogenous mixture:-

• A mixture is said to be heterogeneous if all the components of mixture are not uniformly mixed 
• Visible boundaries of seperation between them
• Example:- sand in water etc.

#Properties of mixture:-

•  A mixture may be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
• The composition of mixture is variable.
• Donot have definite melting point and boiling point.
• Properties of mixture are the properties of its constituents.
• Constituents of mixture can be seperated by simple physical methods.

* Physical and chemical change:-

•Physical change:- 

• It brings change in physical properties such as physical states, shape, size etc.
• No change in chemical composition of a substance.
• No new. Produce formed.
• It is reversible and temporary

•Chemical change :-

• It brings change in chemical properties.
• There is always a change in. Chemical composition of a substance during chemical change
• A new product is formed.
• It is irreversible and permanent.

*Tyndall effect:-

• If a light is passes through medium and it's  path can be seen , then the substance is said to show Tyndall effect.

•Example:- When a beam of sunlight enters a dark room through some hole in window, path of light become visible.

• This is due to scattering of light by the colloidal dust particles present in air 

• This is known as Tyndall effect.

#Solution, suspension and colloids:-

•A solution is defined as a homogeneous mixture of two or more chemically non-reacting substances whose concentration can be varied within limits.

•A solution has two components:-

1. Solute:- 

• A component which is dissolved or which is present in small amount is called solute.
• Also called dispersive phase.

2. Solvent:-

• A component which is present in large amount is called solvent.
• Also called dispersive medium.

# Types of solutions:-

1. Solid in liquid:- 

• Sugar in water
• Tincture of iodide(iodide dissolved in alcohol) etc.

2. Liquid in liquid:-

• Alcohol in water

3. Gas in liquid:-

• Carbon-di-oxide in water.
• Dissolved Oxygen in water.

4.Solid in Solid:-

• Alloys
• Brass(copper+zinc)
• Bronze(copper+tin)

5. Gas in Gas:-

• Air

6. Liquid in solid:-

• Copper sulphate in dental amalgam

7.Gas in Solid:-

• Gas is absorbed over the surface of metal.

8.Solid in Gas:-

• Camphor in air.

9.liquid in Gas:-

• Cloud and fog.

#Properties of Solutions:-

• Homogeneous mixture
• Size of particles is less than 1 nm
• Particles cannot be seen by naked eyes.
• Does not scatter light i.e. it donot show Tyndall effect.
• It is a stable mixture, solute does not settled down over a period of time.
• Solute and solvent do not scatter by filtration.

*Terms related to solution:-

1. Dilute and concentrated solution:- 

• A solution having a small amount of solute in a given solvent is called dilute solution.
• A solution having a large amount of solute in a given solvent is called concentrated solution.
• Both are relative terms.

2. Unsaturated and saturated solution:-

• A solution that can dissolve more solute in it at a given temperature is called unsaturated solution.
• A solution which contain maximum amount of solute dissolved in given quantity of solvent at a given temperature and which cannot dissolve any more solute at that temperature.

3. Solubility:-

•The maximum amount of that can be dissolved in 100mL of solvent is called Solubility of solute in that solvent at a particular temperature.

Or

•Amount of solute needed to make saturated solution of 100gm of solvent is called Solubility of solute in that solvent at a particular temperature.

4. Effect of temperature and pressure on solubility:-

(a) Solubility of solid solute in liquid:-

As temperature increases, 

• Solubility also increase.(Pressure has no effect on Solubility).
• Saturated solution become unsaturated.
• If saturated solution is cooled down some dissolved solute separates.

(b) Solubility of gas in liquid:-

• As temperature increases, solubility decreases,
• As the pressure increases, the solubility increases.

This is the reason that cold drinks are packed at high pressure.

(6). Concentratration of Solution:-

(a) Solid in liquid:-

Concentratration=

            Mass of solute *100   

            Mass of solution

(b) Liquid in liquid=

       Volume of solute *100

        Volume of solution

(c) mass by volume=

       Mass of solute*100

       Volume of solution

#Concentration is the measure of amount.

•It is the amount of solute present in amount of Solution.

#Suspension:-

It is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles donot dissolve but remain suspended throughout the bulk of medium.

#Properties of Suspension:-

• It is a heterogeneous mixture.
• Size of particles is greater than 100nm.
• Particles can be seen by naked eyes.
• It is unstable mixture. Solute settle down at the bottom over period of time.
• If the solution is passed through filter paper, solute and solvent gets seperated.
• It scattered light when light is passes through the solution i.e. it show Tyndall effect.

*Colloids:-

   •Solution in which the size of particles lies in between those of true solutions and suspension are called colloidal Solution or simply colloids.

# Properties of colloids:-

• It is a heterogeneous mixture.
• Size of particles is smaller than suspension but greater than solution.
• Particles donot settle down at the bottom over a period of. So It is a stable mixture.
• It scatter a beam of light passing through it. So it shows Tyndall effect.
• Solute and solvent cannot be separated by filtration.
• Common examples of colloids are :-
  

*Separation of mixtures:-

The method to be used  for separating mixture depends on the nature of its constituents.

(1) Evaporation

• This process is used to separate a substance that has dissolved in liquid.
• It is based on the fact that liquid vaporized easily whereas solid donot vaporized easily.
• Used to get dye from ink. (Dye+water).

Note:- liquid get evaporate and lost to air. So liquid cannot be recovered by this method.

(2). Centrifugation:-

• Method is used to separate suspended particles of a substance from liquid in which mixture is rotated at high speed in a centrifuge.
• As the mixture rotates rapidly,a force acts on heavier suspended particles and bring them down to the bottom.
• The clear liquid being lighter remains on the top.

Application:-

• Used to separate cream from milk.
• Diagnose blood and urine test.
• Also used in washing machine.

(3). Seperation of two immiscible liquid:-

• This process is used to separate two liquids which donot mix into one another.
• Seperated through seperated funnal.

Principle:-

•Two immiscible liquids seperate out in layers depending on their densities.

Method:-

•  Separating funnel has a stopcock in its stem to allow flow of liquid from it or to stop the flow of liquid from it.
• Seperation of two immiscible liquid depends on difference in their densities.
• Example:- seperation of kerosene oil and water /oil and water.
• Kerosene oil is less denser so settles at top of water.
• Used to extract iron from ore.

(4) Seperation of miscible liquids/Distillation:-

• This process is used to separate two liquids which are miscible i.e. they mix into each other in all proportions and form a single layer when put in container.
• This method is valid when difference in boiling points of two liquids is more than 25K.

Method:- 

• Heat the mixture till one of the liquid to attain it's boiling point and form vapours.
• Then cool the vapour back to liquid in another breakee.
• The liquid obtained by condensing the vapour is called distillate.

(5). Fractional Distillation:-

• When the difference in boiling point of two miscible liquids is less than 25K , then fractional Distillation is used to separate the liquids.
• In this process, a fractionating column is fitted between distillation flask and container.
• A single fractionating column has glass beads . These beads provide surface for vapour to cool and condense rapidly.

Uses:-

•  It is used to separate petroleum products.
• Use to seperate gases from air.

#Seperation of gases from air:-

• Air is a homogeneous mixture of gases and can be separated into its components by fractional distillation.
• The flow chart show the steps of process:-
• Air--->
• compress and cooled by increasing pressure and decrease temperature---> 
• liquid air---->
• allow to warm up slowly in fractional distillation column--->
• Gases get separated at different height.

(6) Sublimation:-

• The change of solid directly into vapours and of vapour into solid on cooling is called sublimation.
• The solid which undergoes sublimation is called sublime.
• The solid which obtained by cooling the vapour is called sublimate.
• Example:- Ammonium chloride, camphor, naphthalene and anthracene.

(7). Chromatography:-

• Technique used to separate those solute that dissolve in same solvent in very small quantities.
• Most common chromatography is paper Chromatography.

Principle:- The seperation is based on the fact that two or more substances are soluble in same solvent but their Solubility may be different.

Uses:-

• Use to separate components of dye from ink 
• Drugs from blood.
• Pigments from natural colours.

(8). Crystallization:-

• Use to purify solid.
• It is a process that seperates a pure solid in the form of its crystals from solution.
• Example:- getting NaCl from sea water.
• Seperation of crystals of Alum from impure samples.

(9). Cleaning water for Drinking purpose:-

To have clean water ,we need to pass water obtained from Lake through a long process:-

• Sedimentation tank:- Heavy impure particles settle down when is left for some time.
• Loading tank:- Alum is mixed with water even small suspended particles settle down.
• Filteration tank:- It has three layers of find sand, coarse sand tiny stones . When water passes through it , it further cleaned.
• Chlorination tank:- Chlorine is mixed with water in the tank. It lol germs. Now water is sent to home.

(10). Filteration:-

• A process in which solute and solvent are seperated using filter paper.
• The substance which is not soluble and remain on the filter paper is called residue.
• The substance which filtered out is called filtrate.

Assignment:-

(1). Make a flow chart for classification of matter.

(2).Write the properties of Metal, Non-metal, metalloids, Compounds, mixture, solution, suspension and colloids.

(3)Write the types of Solution with example.

(4) Differentiate between

• Homogeneous vs heterogeneous mixture
• Physical change vs chemical change
• Solution, suspension and colloids

(5). Explain Tyndall effect.

(6). Define:- solute, solvent, dilute and concentrated solution, unsaturated and saturated solution, solubility.

(7). Discuss the effect of pressure and temperature on solubility.

(8) Briefly describe the method of seperation of mixture.

Thankyou :-)

Class 7 "our environment" notes

Target audience:- class 7 CBSE students

Topics to be covered:-

1.Introduction

2.What is environment?

3.Natural environment.

4. Hydrosphere

5. Atmosphere

6. Biosphere

7. Ecosystem

8.Human resources

 *What is environment?

What ever you see in the surroundings. Eg. School building, chair tables 

2. Objects created by nature:-mountains,rivers,trees, animals

3.Objects created by man:-roads,cars, clothes,books.

3Why Is our environment changing? 

•It is because of our needs. They are increasing day by day; we are therefore modifying and attempts even destroying. Our natural surroundings.  

Ques:- Write a short note on environment?

• Ans:-Environment is our basic life support system.
• It provides the air we breathe, the water we drink the food we eat and the land where we live.
• How do humans modify this environment?
• The car fumes pollute the air,water is collected in a pot,food is served In vessel and land is used to build factories
• Humanbeings make cars. Mills ,factories,and manufacture containers. This is how human beings modify natural environment.

*Exact definition:-

• Environment:- The place , people,things, and nature that surrounds any living organism is called environment.
• It is a combination of natural and human made phenomena
• Natural environment refers to both biotic and abiotic Conditions .
• Biotic:- the world of living organisms.e.g.plants and animals.
• Abiotic:- The world of nonliving elements. Eg.lands

Natural environment:-

• Land , water ,air, plants and animals comprises the natural environment.
• Lithosphere:-Solid crust or hard top layer of the earth.
• Made up of rocks and minerals
• Covered by a thin layer of soil
• Irregular surfaces with various landforms such as mountain, plateaus, plains, valleys , etc 
• Landforms are found over the continents and Alos on ocean floors.
• Provide forests, grasslands for grazing land for agriculture and human Settlements. 
• Source of mineral wealth.

Hydrosphere:- Domain of water.Comprises Various sources of water and different types of water bodies like rivers ,lakes seas , oceans etc.Essential for all living beings.

Atmosphere:- 

• Thin layer of air that surrounds the earth.
• Gravitational force of earth holds the atmosphere around it.
• It protects us from the harmful rays and scorching heat of the sun.
• It consists of a number of gases, dust and water vapour.
• The change in atmosphere produce changes in weather and climate.

Biosphere:- plant and animal kingdom together make biosphere or the living world.Narrow zone of the earth where land water and air interact with each other to support life.

Ecosystem:- It is a system Formed by interaction of all living organisms with each other and with the physical and  chemical factors of the environment in which they  live, all linked by transfer of energy and material.

All plants , Animals and human beings depends upon their immediate surroundings.They are interdependent on each other.This relationship between living organisms aa well as the organisms and their surroundings forms an ecosystem.Few examples of ecosystems are :- large rainforest, grasslands , desert , lake , river, oceans, mountain and small ponds etc.

World Environment Day:- 5 June

Barter system:- Trade in which goods are exchange without the use of money.

Human resources:-Human being interact with environment and modify it according to their needs.Early humans adept themselves to the natural surroundings.They led a simple life and fulfilled their requirements from the nature around them.

With time , needs grew and became more varied.Humans learns to grow crops, domesticate animals and Lead a settled life.Wheel invented, barter system emerged, trades started and commerce developed.Industrial Revolution emerges large scale production.Transportation become faster, information revolution made communication easier and speedy across the world.

Thankyou :-)

Class 7 civics notes

Chapter 1:- On equality 

Topics to be covered:-
1. Introduction
2.Equal right to vote
3.Other kinds of equality
4.Recognising dignity
5.Equality in Indian democracy.
6.Issues of equality in other democracies
7.Challenges of democracy
INTRODUCTION:-
•India is a democratic country.
•It include people's participation, the resolution of conflict, and equality and justice.
•Equality is a key feature of democracy and influences all aspects of its functioning.
•so equality is a condition in which adequate opportunities are given to all. It is the soul of Indian democracy.
EQUAL RIGHT TO VOTE:-
•In a democratic country,like India , adults , irrespective of their religion, caste , education etc. are allowed to vote . This is called universal adult franchise.
OTHER KINDS OF EQUALITY:-
•Does equality exist?
-In reality, a difference exist between rich and poor.
-The caste system is also rigid.
-Dalits in India and the minorities are denied the right to dignity and equality.
•Dalit is a term that the so called lower castes use to address themselves. Dalit means 'broken'.
• Omprakash Valmiki is a famous Dalit writer. He wrote "Joothan".
EQUALITY IN INDIAN DEMOCRACY:-
•The Indian Constitution recognise every person as equal. This is not to say that inequality ceases to exist.
•This recognition of equality includes some of the following provisions in the constitution:-
First:-Every person is equal before the law.
Second:-No person can be discriminated against on the basis of their religion, race, caste, place of birth etc.
Third:- Every person has access to all public places including playgrounds, hotels, shops and markets.
Fourth:- untouchability has been abolished.
•How has government tried to implement equality?
•Two ways
First :- through laws
Second:-through government programmes
•Tamil Nadu was the first state in India to start midday meal scheme(2001).
*Positive effects of scheme:-
-Help to reduce caste prejudices
-Dalit women have been employed to cook the meal.
-Help to reduce hunger of poor students
-more and more students get enrolled in schools for education.
ISSUE OF EQUALITY IN OTHER DEMOCRACIES:-
•In United States of America,the African-Americans continue to describe their lives today as largely unequal.
• Rosa Parks , an African-American women, changed the course of American history with one defiant act.
•The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, religion or national origin.
CHALLENGE OF DEMOCRACY:-
•No country can be described as being completely democratic.
GLOSSARY:-
1.Universal adult franchise:-
This is a very important aspect of democratic societies. It means that all adults (above 18) citizens have the right to vote irrespective of their social or economic backgrounds.
2. Dignity:-
This refers to thinking of oneself and other persons as worth of respect.
3. Constitution:- This is a document that lays down the basic rules and regulations for people and the government in the country to follow.
4. Civil Rights Movement:-
A movement that began in USA in 1950s in which African-American people demanded equal rights and an end to racial discrimination.
MORE TO KNOW:-
Excerpt from Article 15 of the Indian Constitution:-
1. The state shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them
2. No citizen shall ,on grounds only of religion, race , caste , sex ,place of birth or any of them , be subject to any disability, liability, restriction or condition with regard to -
(a) access to shops, public restraunts, hotels and places of public entertainment;
Or
(b) the use of wells , tanks , bathing ghats, roads and places of public resort maintained wholly or partly our of state funds or dedicated to the use of general public.

Chapter 2:- Role of government in health

What is Health?

• Health means our ability to remain free of illness and injuries. There are certain factors which affect our health.

Healthcare in India

• India has the largest number of medical colleges in the world and is among the largest producer of doctors.
• India is the fourth largest producer of medicines in the world.
• Most doctors settle in urban areas, while people in rural areas have to travel long distance for medical facilities.
• About 5 lakh people die from tuberculosis every year, while 2 million cases of malaria are reported every year.
• In India, a paradoxical situation exists as health care resources are uneven.

Private and Public Healthcare

• Healthcare is divided into two categories: Public health services and private health services.
• Public health services is a chain of health centres and hospitals run by the government. One important aspect of public health is that it is meant to provide quality healthcare services either free or at a low cost so that even the poor can seek treatment. It is available in both the rural and urban areas.
• Private health services are not owned or controlled by the government. People have to pay a lot of money for every service that they use.

Healthcare and Equality

In India, private health services are increasing but public health services are not. As the cost of these private services is high, many people cannot afford them.

Private services sometimes encourage practice which is unethical. Barely 20% of the Indian population can afford medicines that they require during an illness.

It is the responsibility of the government to provide quality healthcare services to all its citizens, especially the poor and the disadvantaged.

In 1996, Kerala decentralized its health budget at Panchayati level to ensure effective health planning.

The best example of healthcare comes from Costa Rica where the government provides for adequate healthcare to people.

In a democratic country, it is the expectation of the people that government work for their welfare through the provision of education, health, employment, etc.

Health is a vital aspect because only healthy people can prove themselves resourceful.

Health means our ability to remain free of illness and injuries. In broader sense, health means something more than this. Apart from disease, we need to think of other factors such as clean drinking water, pollution-free surroundings etc. that affect our health. Adequate food is also essential for keeping ourselves in good health.

A life with stress will lead us to illness. Hence we need to be without mental strain. Thus, good health includes both a sound mind and sound body.

We need proper healthcare facilities to maintain good health.

Healthcare facilities include health centres, hospitals, laboratories for test, ambulance services, blood banks, etc.

In order to run such facilities, we need health workers, nurses, qualified doctors, etc.

We also need medicines and equipment that are essential for treating patients.

India has no dearth of qualified doctors. There are a large number of clinics and hospitals too. Perhaps, therefore, a large number of medical tourists come to our country for treatment at a reasonable cost.

India is the fourth largest producer of medicines in the world and is also a large exporter of medicines. Despite all this, the health situation in our country is very poor. The reason is that the government fails to make necessary healthcare available to all.

Healthcare facilities can be divided into two categories—Public health services and Private health facilities.

The public health service is a chain of health centres and hospitals run by the government. It is found in both the rural and urban areas.

At the village level, there are health centres where there is usually a nurse and a village health worker. They deal with common illnesses.

At the district level is the District Hospital that supervises all the health centres.

Big cities have many government hospitals.

Under the public health system, quality health care services are provided either free or at a low cost, so that even the poor can seek treatment.

Under this system, the action is also taken to prevent the spread of diseases like Tuberculosis, malaria, jaundice, cholera, diarrhoea, chikungunya, etc.

A wide range of private health facilities exists in our country. A large number of doctors run their own private clinics.

In the rural areas, Registered Medical Practitioners (RMPs) are found whereas in the urban areas a large number of doctors can be seen.

There are hospitals and nursing homes that are privately owned, and not run by the government.

Unlike public health services in private hospitals, patients have to pay a lot of money for their treatment.

In our country, private services are increasing but public sen/ices are not. As the private sen/ices are run for profit, the cost of these services is rather high. Poor people find it difficult to get treatment here.

Adequate healthcare is not available to all in the country. Only 20% of the population can afford all the medicines that they require during illness.

It has been found that 40% of people who are admitted to a hospital for some illness have to borrow money or sell some of their possessions to pay for the expenses.

For the poor, every illness is a curse. As they are undernourished and live in unhygienic conditions they frequently fall ill. The expenses on illness make their situation even worse.

So far women’s health is associated, it is easily ignored.

Many tribal areas have few health centres.

Thus, we can say without a doubt that the health situation of most people in our country is not good.

However, Kerala has made efforts to provide adequate healthcare to people of the state.

Costa Rica is a country in North America. It is considered to be one of the healthiest countries in the continent.

The Costa Rican government curtailed the expenses on the army to spend it on health, education and other basic needs of the people. It provides them with safe drinking water, sanitation, nutrition and housing.

Medical Tourists: The foreigners who come to our country for medical treatment at hospitals that change the reasonable cost.

Communicable Diseases: Diseases that spread from one person to another through water, food, air, etc.

Public: A service that is meant for all people in the country and is organised by the government. For example, schools, hospitals, etc.

Private: A service that is organised by an individual or company for their own profit.

OPD: It refers to the Out Patient Department. This is where people are first brought in and treated in a hospital without bwithouing admitted to any special ward.

RMPs: It refers to Registered Medical Practitioners. They are found in rural areas.

Chapter 3 :- How the state government works

• Government works at three levels- national, state and local.
• In states, it is the MLA (Member of Legislature Assembly) who represents the people. The MLAs enter the assembly and form the government.
• Every MLA is elected from one area. This area is known as his constituency.
• Every state in India has legislative assembly.
• Each state is divided into different constituency.
• For example:- Himachal Pradesh is divided into 68 assembly constituency.
• From.each constituency , people elect one representative who then become MLA
• A political party whose MLA’s win more than half the number of constituencies in the state get the majority. The political party is called the ruling party.
• All the other members are called opposition.

Working of the Government

• The organization of the state government includes the Governors, the state legislature and the state council of ministers.
• Every state in India has a Legislative Assembly and duration of the Legislative Assembly is five years.
• The head of the state is the Governor while the head of the government consists of the council of ministers headed by the Chief Minister.
• The leader of the ruling party who forms the government is the Chief Minister.
• The Legislative Assembly is a place where leaders debate and discuss on important issues and make important bills.
• In addition to the Legislative Assembly, the press conference is also a mode of knowing what the government does for the people.
• The government works through various departments like public works department, agriculture, health and education.
• The government has the power to make new laws for the state regarding health and sanitation.
• Laws for the state are made by the state Legislative Assembly.
• Laws for the country are made by the Union Parliament.
• An MLA is a member of the Legislative Assembly. He is elected by the people. In this way, he represents people.
• Every state in India has a Legislative Assembly.
• Each state is divided into constituencies.
• A constituency is an area from which all the voters living there choose their representatives, who then become Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs).
• These MLAs belong to different political parties.
• A political party whose MLAs have won more than half the number of constituencies, a state can be said to be in a majority.
• The political party that has a majority becomes the ruling party and all other members become the opposition.
• After the elections, the MLAs belonging to the ruling party elect their leader who becomes the Chief Minister. The Chief Minister then selects other people as ministers.
• The Governor of the state appoints the Chief Minister and other ministers.
• The ministers have separate offices.
• Some MLAs have dual responsibilities—one as an MLA and the other as a minister.
• The debate is generally held in the Assembly to discuss current problems. During debate time MLAs can express their opinions and ask questions related to the issue or give suggestions about what should be done by the government. The minister then replies to the questions and assures the Assembly that adequate steps are being taken.
• The Chief Minister and other ministers together are responsible to run the government.

• The word ‘government’, refers to government departments and various ministers who head them.
• All the MLAs who gather together in the legislative assembly are called the Legislature.
• The Legislature Assembly is not the only place where opinions are expressed about the work of the government. There several newspapers, TV channels, and other organizations which also talk about the government.
• After the discussion in the assembly, a press conference is generally held by a particular minister who explains the steps taken by the government. Media persons then report these discussions in several newspapers.
• The government can also decide to make new laws for the state regarding sanitation and health facilities. The various government departments then implement these laws.
• Whenever the government fails to satisfy people’s needs, they organize meetings to voice their opinions and protest against the government.

Glossary:-

Constituency: It refers to a particular area from which all the voters living there choose their representatives.

Majority: A political party whose MLAs have won more than half the number of constituencies in a state can say to be in a majority.

Opposition party: The elected representatives who are not the members of the ruling party belong to the opposition party. The representative together plays the role of questioning government decisions and actions. They also raise new issues for consideration in the Assembly.

Ruling party: The political party that has the majority is known as the ruling party.

Press conference: A gathering of media persons who are invited to hear about and ask questions on a particular issue and are then expected to report on this to the larger public.

Chapter 4:-Growing up as boy and girl

Gender is a social construction through which the social and cultural roles of males and females are defined.

Most of the societies value men and women differently. The role women play and the work they do are usually valued less than the roles men play and the work they do. This clears the fact that men and women do not have the same status.

Gender justice is an important issue to be highlighted.

Samoan Islands

The Samoan islands are one of the large groups of small islands in the southern part of the Pacific Ocean. Till the 1920s, children in this island did not go to school. When the babies started walking on own, they were left under the care of their older brothers and sisters. Children as old as five years looked after their younger siblings.

After attaining nine years of age, boys joined the older boys for outdoor activities like fishing and planting coconuts. However, girls continued looking after the younger ones.

When girls became teenagers, i.e., 14 years of age, they were allowed more freedom as they could then go for fishing and plantation activities or help their mothers in cooking, etc.

Madhya Pradesh

In Madhya Pradesh, India, boys and girls had a different outlook. The school for boys was open while the one for girls was closed.

Men and women do equal work, but it is not valued equally.

Valuing Housework

Many women work in offices and many do only household work.

Valuing housework is an important element which needs to be propagated in society.

If we look at the lives of domestic workers, they are involved in activities like sweeping, cleaning, cooking, washing clothes and dishes or looking after children. Most of these are women.

A number of housework actually involves many different tasks. The work requires strenuous and physically demanding situation.

Women’S Work and Equality

Equality is an important principle of our constitution which says that being male or female should not become a reason for discrimination.

While the constitution does not discriminate between male and female, in reality, discrimination still carries on.

Government has introduced measures like Anganwadis or Child Care Centres to improve the status of women in society.

The government has also started creche facilities to help women to take up employment outside the home.

We find distinctions between boys and girls in our societies. This begins at a very young age.

Boys are often taught to be tough and serious while girls are taught to be soft and mild.

Boys are given toys like cars and guns to play with while girls are seen playing with dolls. These toys become a way of telling children what they will have different futures when they become men and women.

Most societies value men and women differently. The roles women play and the work they do are usually valued less than the roles men play and the work they do. This clears the fact that men and women do not have the same status.

If a woman is a housewife, it is often said that she does not work. But the reality is that it is always the woman who bears the main responsibility for housework and caregiving tasks like looking after the family. As she does not earn money by doing these tasks, her work is not recognized.

The term houseworks involves many different tasks which require heavy physical work.

In both rural and urban areas women and girls carry heavy headloads of firewood. Housework also involves washing clothes, cleaning, sweeping and cooking foods, etc. for the family. All these works are very tough, still, women do them every day. They do not complain or show any anguish on their face.

The work of women is time-consuming too. They do not have much time for leisure.

Many women nowadays work both inside and outside the home. This is often referred to as the double burden. Women bear this double burden very skilfully and efficiently.

Equality is an important principle of our constitution which says that being male or female should not become a reason for discrimination. But what we see in reality is that inequality still exists between both the sexes. The government is, therefore, very much keen to take some positive measures to improve the situation.

The government has set up Anganwadis or Child-care Centres in several villages in the country.

The government has also started creche facilities to help women to take up employment outside the home.

Caregiving: Looking after the family with great sincerity.

Devalue: When we do not give due recognition for work, it means we devalue it. In our society, women’s work is easily devalued.

Double-burden: There are several women who work both inside and outside the home. This is known as a double burden.

Identity: It is a sense of awareness of who one is. For example, a person can be a brother, a pilot, an engineer, etc.

Physically demanding: It refers to the household tasks which are very tough and demand great physical strength.

Time-consuming: It refers to the various household tasks which take much time.

Strenuous: Very tough and difficult.

Chapter 5:-Women change  the world

Women have been facing inequalities at every step.

By getting an education, women have got opportunities to rise in every field.

Women’s movement has risen to challenge discrimination in all parts of the world.

Fewer Opportunities and Rigid Expectation

A lot of people feel that women are fit only for certain kinds of jobs as a nurse. They are not fit for technical jobs.

In most families, women are taught that after school they have to get married. Laxmi Lakra, however, broke this stereotype image when she became the first woman engine driver of the Northern Railways.

We live in a society full of pressures. If boys do not work hard and get a good salary they are bullied

Learning for Change

Going to school is an important part of life.

Today, it is difficult for us to imagine that school and learning could be seen as out of bounds or not appropriate for some children.

In the past, very few people learnt reading and writing. Most children learnt the work their families or elders did. Even in families where skills like pottery, weaving and craft were taught, the contribution of daughters and women was seen as secondary.

In the nineteenth century, new ideas about learning and education appeared. But there was a lot of opposition to educating girls ever then.

In the 1890s, Ramabai championed the cause of women’s education.

Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain learnt English from her elder brother and an elder sister in spite of family opposition and went on to become a famous writer.

Rashsundari Devi of Bengal was the first Indian woman to write an autobiography called ‘Amar Jiban’.

Schooling and Education Today

Today both boys and girls attend school in large numbers.

The difference in Their Education Still Remains

Today education is the right of both boys and girls, despite that only 50 % of the girls receive an education.

India has a census every 10 years which counts the population of the country. This information is used to measure things like literacy, sex-ratio, etc.

A huge number of SC and ST children leave school at an early age. The 2014 census even shows that Muslim girls are less likely than Dalit girls to complete primary school.

Many reasons like non-availability of teachers and schools, lack of transport, cost of education, indifferent attitude of teachers and parents are responsible for the negligence of education.

Women’s Movement

Women have individually and collectively struggled to bring about changes. This is called the Women’s Movement.

Different strategies have been used to spread awareness, fight discrimination and seek justice.

These movements are related to campaigning, raising awareness, protesting and showing solidarity.

Men and women in society are looked upon as playing specific gender roles.

Women have been facing inequalities at every step since time immemorial. No doubt, their position and status have been improved with the change of time, still, they lag behind men in almost every field.

In this male-dominated society, they fail to avail equal privileges and opportunities.

It has also been seen that some occupations are considered to be more suitable for men than for women. It means women are good at only certain jobs.

Many people believe that women make better nurses because they are more patient and gentle. It is also believed that women do not bear technical mind and therefore they are not capable of dealing with technical things. Thus, they have been stereotyped as good nurses, good teachers, etc. They are never seen as army officers, pilots, railway engine drivers, etc.

A majority of Indians believe in these stereotypes. It is, therefore, girls do not get the same support that boys do to study and train to become doctors and engineers.

Today’s women have become very aware. They are determined to break these stereotypes by excelling them in fields which were considered male preserves till now. We have now women pilots, engineers, police officers, scientists etc. We can mention here the name of Laxmi Lakra who by becoming an engine driver, showed the world that women can do everything.

Children especially boys are under great pressure. They are pressurised to think about getting a job that will pay a good salary.

It is a matter of great anxiety for the parents if their son shows his inclination towards studying subjects other than science or maths.

In our present social set-up parents have developed a false belief that only science and maths are meaningful subjects. Only these subjects can make their son’s future secured. These notions have no base. They must be eliminated from our mind. Subjects like history, political science, etc. are also job oriented.

One positive change that is visible today is that more and more children have started going to school. In the past, the skill of reading and writing was known to only a few. Most children learnt the work their families or elders did.

But girls faced the even worse situation. In communities that taught sons to read and write, daughters were not allowed to learn the alphabet.

Slowly and steadily there came more and more positive changes. The communities that never learnt reading and writing started sending their children to school. In the beginning, there was a lot of opposition jp educating girls. But there were also women and men who made efforts to open schools for girls.

Women struggled to learn to read and write. Here, the experience of Rashsundari Devi (1800-1890) is worth mentioning. She was a housewife from a rich landlord’s family. At that time, it was believed that if a woman learnt to read and write, she would become a widow. Despite this, she taught herself how to read and write in secret, after her marriage. She wrote her autobiography in Bangla which titled Amar Jaban,

Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain was another example who did a lot for women’s education. She knew how to read and write Urdu, but she was stopped from learning Bangla and English. In those days only boys were taught English. However, she learnt to read and write Bangla and English. Afterwards, she became a writer and wrote a remarkable story titled Sultana’s Dream in 1905. She did a lot to help other girls go to school and to build their own dreams. In 1910, she started a school for girls in Kolkata which is still functioning well.

No doubt more and more girls have started attending school, still they lag behind boys. As per the most recent census of 2001, 76% of boys and men are literate but the figure is comparatively very low in case of girls. Only 54% of girls and women are literate in India. Thus, the percentage of the male group is higher than the female group.

Girls who are from Dalit and Adivasi backgrounds are less likely to remain in school. One of the many reasons is that several families are too poor and unable to bear the cost of educating all their children. Boys easily get preference in such circumstances.

The position and status of women have undoubtedly improved a lot which is due to the collective efforts of the women of the country. Women’s Movement also gets the support of men. They used different strategies to spread awareness, fight discrimination and seek justice. For example, they organise campaigns to fight discrimination and violence against women. They also protest when violations against women take place. Women’s Movement also shows solidarity with other women and causes.

Stereotype: the Fixed image of a person and a community. Stereotypes prevent us from looking at people as unique individuals.

Discrimination: Treating people unequally.

Violation: When someone forcefully breaks the law or a rule or openly shows disrespect, we often say that he/she has committed a violation.

Sexual Harassment: Physical or verbal behaviour that is of a sexual nature and against a woman’s wishes.

Protest: To raise voice against the wrong action or decision.

Scheduled Caste (SC): It is the official term used for Dalit class of people.

Scheduled Tribe (ST): It is the official term used for Adivasi class of people.

Autobiography: Autobiography is the life sketch of the writer himself.

Manuscript: The script written in the writer’s own handwriting.

Census: Census is held every 10 years. It counts the whole population of the country. It also gathers information about the people living in India—their age, schooling, what work they do, and so on.

Chapter 6 :-Understanding media

Media refers to all means of communication, everything ranging from a phone call to the evening news on TV can be called media. TV, radio, and newspapers are forms of media. Since they reach millions of people across the world they are called mass media.

Media is the plural form of the word ‘medium’ and it describes the various ways through which we communicate in society.

Media and Technology

Life without media is difficult. Cable TV and the Internet are recent phenomena.

Both print media and electronic media have played an important role in social change.

Changing technology or machines help media to reach more people.

Television has enabled us to think of ourselves as members of the global people.

It is the responsibility of the media to present a fair and balanced report.

Media is far from being independent. This is because of the control of the government over media called censoring and because big business houses control the media.

An independent media means that no one should control and influence its coverage and news.

Media and Money

The different technologies that mass media use are expensive.

In a news studio, it is not only the newsreader who needs to be paid but also a number of other people who help put the broadcast together.

A lot of money is spent on getting the latest technology. To meet this cost, it needs money.

Media thus has come to be owned by big corporate.

Media, therefore, uses advertising as a tool to raise revenue.

Media and Democracy

Media plays a very important role in providing news and discussing events taking place in the country and the world.

New stories of media inform people about important events in the country.

Some important ways by which people can take about important events in the country are organizing public protests, starting a signature campaign, etc.

Setting Agendas

The media also plays an important role in deciding which stories to focus on.

By focusing on particular issues, it influences and shapes our thoughts. It is said the media sets the agenda for people.

Very recently, the media reported alarming levels of pesticides in cold drinks. This report led to safety standards being set for colas.

Media plays a very important role in our lives as it tells us about working of the government.

Freedom of expression should be given to media to report events independently.

Media is the plural form of the word ‘Medium’. It describes the various ways through which we communicate in society.

Media refers to all means of communication, everything ranging from a phone call to the evening news on television.

Television, radio, and newspapers are called mass media because they reach millions of people at the same time.

Cable television and the widespread use of the Internet is a recent phenomenon.

The technology that mass media uses keeps changing.

Newspapers and magazines come under print media while television and radio come under electronic media.

Changing technology, or machines and making technology more modern, helps media to reach more and more people. It also improves the quality of sound and the images. It also changes the ways in which we think about our lives.

Television plays a major role in our life. We cannot think of life without TV. It gives us news and entertainment and many other things.

Mass media uses expensive technologies. A TV studio needs lights, cameras, sound recorders, transmission satellites, etc. All these cost a huge amount of money.

Mass media also spends a lot of money on getting the latest technology.

Most television channels and newspapers become a part of big business houses in order to fulfill their requirement of money.

Mass media earns money by advertising different things such as surf, chocolates, etc.

Media plays a significant role in democracy. It provides news and discusses events that take place in the country and the world. It is on the basis of this information we come to know how the government works.

The information that the media provides should be balanced. A balanced report is one that discusses all points of view of a particular story and then leaves it to the readers to make up their minds.

Independent media can write a balanced report. Hence, it is necessary for the media to be independence.

But the reality is that media is far from independent.

There are two reasons behind it. The first is the control that the government has on the media. Where the government prevents either a news item or scenes from a movie, or a lyric of a song from being shared with the larger public, this is known as censorship. During the Emergency period (1975-77) the government censored the media.

While the government does continue to censor films, it does not really censor the media’s coverage of news.

Despite the absence of censorship by the government, most newspapers do not provide a balanced report.

It has been found out by the persons who research media that business houses control media. It means that the media is not independent.

Media sets the agenda. It means media has to decide what stories to focus on and therefore, decides on what is newsworthy.

Media should focus on issues that are significant in our lives. But very often it fails to do so. Cricket, fashion shows are very popular with the media.

Local media deals with small issues that involve ordinary people and their daily lives. Khabar Lahriya, a fortnightly newspaper, is run by eight Dalit women in Chitrakoot district in Uttar Pradesh. It is written in the local language, Bundeli.

Media: The word ‘media’ refers to all means of communication, everything ranging from a phone call to the news on television.

Public protest: When people collectively state their opposition to some issue by organizing a rally, starting a signature campaign, etc., it is known as a public protest.

Balanced report: A balanced report is one that discusses all points of view of a particular story and then leaves it to the leaders to make up their minds.

Censorship: The government has the power to disallow media from publishing or showing certain stories. This means that the government can censor the media.

Broadcast: A TV or radio programme that is widely transmitted.

Setting Agenda: One of the important functions of media is that it decides what stories should be focused on and thus decides on what is newsworthy. This is often said that the media sets the agenda.

Local Media: It deals with small issues that involve ordinary people and their daily lives. It publishes news of local importance.

Tissue class 9

Target audience :- Class 9th CBSE / other relevant board following NCERT
Topics to be covered:
*Introduction
*Difference between plants and animals
*Plant tissues
          -Types (2)
               +Meristematic tissue
               +Permanent tissue
*Animal tissues
          -Types(4)
               +Epithelial tissue
               +Connective tissue
               +Muscular tissue
               +Nervous tissue
-INTRODUCTION:-
In the last chapter we have discussed about cell . We have learnt
*Cell is the building block of life
*All organisms are made up of cells
*On the basis of number of cells, there are      two types of cells
      +Unicellular(Amoeba)
      +Multicellular(Homo sapiens)
#In Amoeba ,all the life processes ( digestion, respiration, transportation and excretion) are done by single cell.
#In Homo sapiens , division of labour occur.
  -In this cells aggregate to form tissue and thus perform specialised function very efficiently.
  -For example muscle cells contract and relax to cause movement,
  -Nerve cells carry messages and
  -Blood flow to transport Oxygen,food,           water and waste etcs.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMAL
• Plants are stationary(Do not move).
•Most of the tissues are supportive (provide  structural strength)
•Most of the tissues are dead( provide mechanical strength)
• Dead tissues need less maintenance.
• Growth is limited to certain regions.
• some cells divide throughout life Such cells are called meristematic cells and rest are of permanent type.
• structural organisation of Organ and Organ system is less complex.
Now let us figure out animals
•Show locomotion(movement from one place to another) in search of food , mate and shelter.
•Consume more energy
•Most of the tissues are living.
• Uniform growth occur upto certain age limit.
• No demarcation of dividing and non dividing region
• Structural organisation of Organ and Organ systems is more specialised.
They possess different life styles and so different kind of tissue
We will now learn about Plant tissues:-
*PLANT TISSUES
  Types (2)
      -Meristematic tissue
      -Permanent tissue
MERISTEMATIC TISSUE
- also known as dividing tissue
-growth of plant occur only in those regions where where these tissue present
-depening upon the region where they are present , it is of 3 types:-
     •Apical Meristematic tissue
     •Lateral meristematic tissue
     •Intercalary meristematic tissue (see fig.        6.2)
New cells formed from meristem are life of meristem itself , but as they grow they differentiate to form components of other tissues.
Differentiation :-the process by which Meristem take up permanent shape ,size and a function.
APICAL MERISTEM:-
Location:-gtowing tip of stems and roots
Function:--increases the lenght of stem and root
INTERCALARY MERISTEM-
Location:- base of leaves or internodes of twigs
LATERAL MERISTEM:-
Increases girth (thickness) of stem and root due lateral meristem(cambium)

CHARACTERISTICS OF MERISTEM:-
• Possess dense cytoplasm,
•Thin cellulose wall,
•Prominent nucleus
• no storage of food so no vacuole
• no food so no disease
IMP:- used in tissue culture as they are diseases free cells.
PERMANENT TISSUE:-
• Meristem differentiate to form different types of permanent tissue.
• Types :- 2
  - Simple permanent tissue
  -Complex permanent tissue
SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUE
Made up of one type of cells.
Types :-3
   -Parenchyma
         +Aerenchyma
         +Chlorenchyma
   - collenchyma
   -Sclerenchyma
PARENCHYMA
Characteristics:-
-Unspecialised  cells(donot have special function ) with thin cell wall.
-Living cells
-Loosely arranged (large intercellular space)
-Generally store food.
-Location :- Beneath the epidermis.
*Types :- two types
1.Chlorenchyma
2. Aerenchyma
Chlorenchyma:-
-Paranchyma containing chlorophyll is called chlorenchyma.
-Perform photosynthesis.
Aerenchyma:-
-In aquatic plants , large air cavities are present in parenchyma to help them float.
-such parenchyma is called Aerenchyma.
COLLENCHYMA:-
Location:- found in leaves stalks below epidermis.
Characteristics:-
 -living,
- elongate ,
 -irregular thickening at the corners And
 -very little intercellular space
Functions:-
-Provide flexibility to plants.
-Allow bending in various parts of plants without breaking.
-provide mechanical support.

*SCLERENCHYMA:-
Location:-
-in stem around vascular bundle,
-In the veins of leaves,
-in the hard covering of seeds and nuts.
Characters:-
- cells are dead
-long and narrow
-walls are thicker due to lignin.
-No internal space inside the cell.
Functions:-
-Make the plant hard and stiff.
-provide strength to plant parts.

* EPIDERMIS:-
- outermost layer of cells.
-Usually made up of single layer of cells.
-entire surface of plants has an outer layer of epidermis.
-cells are continuous without intercellular space.
-epidermal cells are flat,
-outer and side walls are thicker than inner walls.
- protects all parts of plants.
Adaptation:-
-in very dry habitat epidermis may be thicker since protection against water loss is critical.
-Epidermal cells on the aerial parts of plants often secretes a waxy , water resistant layer On their outer surface
Functions:-
Aids in protection against lose of water,
Mechanical injury,
Invasion by parasitic fungi.
2.In desert plants, epidermis has a thick waxy coating of cutin on its outer surface.
Cutin is a chemical substance with waterproof quality.
Stomata:-
-Small pores here and there on the epidermis of leaf.
-enclosed by two kidney shaped cells called guard cells.
Functions:-
-Exchange of gases with atmosphere.
-Transpiration(loss of water from aerial parts of plants)

*Epidermis of roots:-
-bear long hair like parts that greatly increase the total absorptive surface area.
Function:-
Water absorption.
Secondary meristem:-
-As plants grow older, outer protective tissue undergoes certain changes
-A strip of secondary meristem, located in the cortex forms layers of cells which constitute the cork.
Characteristics:-
-cells of cork are dead , compactly arranged without intercellular spaces.
- have suberin in their walls that makes them impervious to gases and water.

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*Complex permanent tissue:-
- made up of more types of cells.
-All cells coordinate to perform common functions.
Types:- two types
1. Xylem
2. Phloem
-Both are conducting tissue contain vascular bundle
-Vascular russes is a distinct feature of complex plants.

Xylem:-
Consists of
1.Tracheids,
2. Vessels
3.Xylem parenchyma
4.Xylem fibres
Tracheids and vessels
- have thick walls and many are dead cells when mature.
-tubular structure
-transport water and minerals vertically.

Parenchyma stores food.

Xylem fibre are mainly supportive in functions.

Phloem :-
Consist of
1. Sieve cells,
2. Sieve tubes,
3.Companion cells,
4.Phloem fibre,
5. Phloem parenchyma.
- Sieve tubes are tubular cells with perforated walls.
- Phloem transports food from leaves to other parts of plants
-phloem fibres are dead
- others are living.

*ANIMAL TISSUES:-

-When we breathe we feel the movement of our chest.
-For this we have muscle cells.
- contraction and relaxation of muscle cells results in movement.
-During breathing we inhale oxygen.
- this oxygen absobed in lungs and is transported to all body cells through blood.
-In mitochondria , oxygen combine with glucose to make Carbon-di-oxide, water and ATP(adinosine triphosphate).
-Blood flows and carries various substances from one part of body to another.(oxygen ,food etc).
-also collect waste from  of all parts of body and Carries them to kidney and liver for disposal.
So blood and muscles are the russes in our body.
Four types of animal tissue in detail:-
1.epithelial tissue
2.connective tissue
3. Muscular tissue
4. Nervous tissue

Epithelial tissue:-
-Covering and protective tissue in animal body.
-Covers most organs and cavaties within the body.
-Forms a barrier to keep different system separate.
-skin, lining of mouth, lining of blood vessels, lung alveoli and kidney tubules are made up of epithelial tissue.
Characteristics:-
-cells are tightly packed and forms a continuous sheet
-have small amount of cementing material between them .
- no intercellular space.
Functions:-
Anything entering or leaving must cross atleast one layer of epithelium
-so permeability of epithelial play important role in exchanging material between body and external environment , also between different parts of body.
-different epithelial shows different structure and so different functions:-
-For example:-
1. Simple squamous epithelium:-
- cells are extremely thin and flat, forms a delicate lining.
-lining of oesophagus , mouth , blood vessels and lung alveoli.
2.Stratified squamous epithelium :- present in skin.
-prevent wear and tear.
When squamous epithelium are arranged in many layers then it is called stratified squamous epithelial.
3. Columnar epithelial:-
-In the inner lining of intestine, tall epithelial cells are present, called columnar epithelial cells.
-In respiratory tract, columnar cells have cilia, so called ciliated columnar epithelial .
- cilia push the mucus forward to clear the tract.
4. Cuboidal epithelial:-
- forms lining of kidney tubules and ducts of salivary glands.
-provide mechanical support.
5. Glandular epithelial:-
- A portion of epithelial tissue fold inward and a multicellular gland is formed , called glandular eplithilial tissue.

*Connective tissue:-
-Tissue which connects the body.
-example:- blood , bone, tendon ligament, adipose, cartilage and areolar.
- Cells are loosely spaced.
-Embedded in intercellular matrix.
- Matrix can be jelly like, fluid , dense or rigid .
- nature of matrix depends upon functions the tissue perform.
1.Blood:- fluid connective issue.
-Matrix is called plasma (fluid) in which RBCs , WBCs and platelets suspended.
- Plasma contains proteins , salts and hormones.
- Blood flows and transport gases, digested food , hormones and waste materials to different parts of body.
2. Bones:-
-strong and non- flexible tissue.
-Forms framework that supports the body.
- anchor the muscles
-support main Organs of the body.
- bone cells are embedded in hard matrix
- matrix compost of hard calcium and phosphorus compounds.
3.Ligament:- join bone to bone.
-elastic , has considerable strength.
- contain very little matrix.
4. Tendon:- join bone to muscle.
-fibrous tissue with great strength but limited flexiblity.
5.Cartilage:-
-widely spaced cells .
-Solid matrix composed of protein and sugar
-smoothen bone surface at joints.
-Present in nose , ear, trachea and laryings.
6.Areolar connective tissue:-
- Found between skin and muscles, around blood vessels and nerves and in bone marrow.
-fill space inside Organs,
-support internal organs.
-helps in repair of tissue.
7. Adipose tissue:-
-fat storing tissue.
-found below the skin and between internal organs.
-act as insulator.

*Muscular tissue:-
-Consists of elongated cells called muscle fibre
-responsible for movement in the body.
- Contains special protein called contractile proteins which contract and relax to cause movement.
Types:- three types
1.voluntory/skeletal/striated muscle
2.involulantory/unstriated muscle
3.Cardiac muscle
1.Voluntory /skeletal/Striated muscle:-
-cells are long, cylindrical, unbranched and multinucleate.
-can move by our conscious will(voluntary)
-attached to body skeleton (skeletal)
-under microscope , it shows alternate dark and light bands (Striated)
-found in limbs .
2.Involuntary /unstriated muscle:-
-cells are long with pointed ends(spindle shaped) and uninucleate.
- movement of food in alimentary canal or contraction and relaxation of blood vessels are the examples.
-we can't start or stop these movements by our own will.
- found in iris of eye, in uterus and in bronchi of lungs.
- no alternative dark or light band seen under microscope (unstriated).
3.Cardiac muscles:-
- muscles of heart shows rhythemic contraction and relaxation throughout life.
-cells are cylindrical, branched and multinucleate.

*Nervous tissue:-
-made up of nerve cells called neurons.
-One meter long cell.
-Highly specialised for being stimulated and then transmitting the stimulus very rapidly from one place to another within the body.
-brain , spinal cord and nerves are all composed of nervous tissue.
-parts of neuron:- three parts
1. Cell body(with nucleus and cytoplasm)
- possess many, short ,branched parts called dendrites.
2. Axon (single long part)
3. Nerve endings.

Many nerve fibres are bound together by connective tissue make up a nerve
- signal passes along nerve fibre is called nerve impulse.
-nerve impulse allow us to move our muscle when we want to.
-Functional combination of nerve and muscle tissue is fundamental to most animals.
-this combination enable animals to move rapidly in response to stimulus.

Thankyou :-)